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| − | {{redirect|Stinging nettle|the Australian plant|Urtica incisa}}
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| − | {{For|other plants that sting|Stinging plant#Plants with stinging hairs}}
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| − | {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
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| − | |image = Brennnessel 1.JPG | + | |image = Brännässla (Urtica Dioica).jpg |
| | |image_caption = ''Urtica dioica'' subsp. ''dioica'' | | |image_caption = ''Urtica dioica'' subsp. ''dioica'' |
| | |taxon = Urtica dioica | | |taxon = Urtica dioica |
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| − | '''''Urtica dioica''''', often called '''common nettle''', '''stinging nettle''' (although not all plants of this species sting) or '''nettle leaf''', is a<!--article is in British English so not "an"--> [[herbaceous]] [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[flowering plant]] in the family [[Urticaceae]]. It is native to Europe, Asia, northern Africa, and North America, and introduced elsewhere.<ref name="pfaf">{{cite web|title=Urtica dioica - L.|url=https://www.pfaf.org/USER/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Urtica+dioica|publisher=Plants for a Future|accessdate=23 April 2018|date=2012}}</ref><ref name="uc">{{cite web|title=Burning & Stinging Nettles|url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn74146.html|publisher=University of California|accessdate=21 September 2013}}</ref> The species is divided into six [[subspecies]], five of which have many hollow stinging hairs called [[trichome]]s on the leaves and stems, which act like hypodermic needles, injecting [[histamine]] and other chemicals that produce a stinging sensation upon contact ("contact urticaria").<ref name="drugs">{{cite web|title=Nettles|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/nettles.html|publisher=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 April 2018|date=2009}}</ref><ref name="Brodal2010">{{cite book|author=Per Brodal|title=The Central Nervous System: Structure and Function|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iJjI6yDNmr8C&pg=PA170|accessdate=22 September 2010|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press US|isbn=978-0-19-538115-3|page=170}}</ref> The plant has a long history of use as a source for [[traditional medicine]], food, tea, and [[textile]] [[raw material]] in ancient societies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lukešová |first1=Hana |title=Identifying plant fibre textiles from Norwegian Merovingian Period and Viking Age graves: The Late Iron Age Collection of the University Museum of Bergen |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |date=June 2017 |volume=13 |pages=281-285 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.03.051 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352409X16306265 |accessdate=13 June 2018}}</ref>
| + | [[Category:Urticaceae]] |
| − | | + | [[Category:Plants Keenan has eaten]] |
| − | ==Description==
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| − | [[File:Illustration Urtica dioica0.jpg|thumb|right|''Urtica dioica'' from Thomé, ''Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz'' 1885]]
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| − | ''Urtica dioica'' is a [[dioecious]], [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]], [[perennial plant]], {{Convert|1|to|2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} tall in the summer and dying down to the ground in winter.<ref name=pfaf/> It has widely spreading [[rhizome]]s and [[stolon]]s, which are bright yellow, as are the roots. The soft, green leaves are {{convert|3|to|15|cm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} long and are borne oppositely on an erect, wiry, green stem. The leaves have a strongly serrated margin, a cordate base, and an acuminate tip with a terminal leaf tooth longer than adjacent laterals. It bears small, greenish or brownish, numerous flowers in dense axillary inflorescences. The leaves and stems are very hairy with non-stinging hairs, and in most subspecies, also bear many stinging hairs ([[trichome]]s or spicules), whose tips come off when touched, transforming the hair into a needle that can inject several chemicals causing a painful sting or [[paresthesia]], giving the species its common names: stinging nettle, burn nettle, burn weed, or burn hazel.<ref name=pfaf/><ref name=drugs/><ref name=uc/>
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| − | [[File:Urtica dioica specimen, Cambridge University Botanic Garden.jpg|thumb| ''Urtica dioica'' grown as a botanical specimen in [[Cambridge University Botanic Garden]]]]
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| − | ==Taxonomy==
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| − | The [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] of ''Urtica'' species has been confused, and older sources are likely to use a variety of systematic names for these plants. Formerly, more species were recognised than are now accepted. However, at least six clear [[subspecies]] of ''U. dioica'' are described, some formerly classified as separate species:
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| − | *''U. dioica'' subsp. ''dioica'' (European stinging nettle), from Europe, Asia, and northern Africa, has stinging hairs.
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| − | *[[Urtica dioica subsp. galeopsifolia|''U. dioica'' subsp. ''galeopsifolia'']] (fen nettle or stingless nettle), from Europe, does not have stinging hairs.
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| − | *''U. dioica'' subsp. ''afghanica'', from southwestern and central Asia, sometimes has stinging hairs or is sometimes hairless.<ref name=FOC>{{cite web|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=220014002|title=Flora of China online|author1=Chen Jiarui|author2=Ib Friis|author3=C. Melanie Wilmot-Dear|publisher=efloras, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA}}</ref>
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| − | *''U. dioica'' subsp. ''gansuensis'', from eastern Asia (China), has stinging hairs.<ref name=FOC/>
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| − | *[[Urtica dioica subsp. gracilis|''U. dioica'' subsp. ''gracilis'']] (Ait.) Selander (American stinging nettle), from North America, has stinging hairs.
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| − | *''U. dioica'' subsp. ''holosericea'' (Nutt.) Thorne (hoary stinging nettle), from North America, has stinging hairs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Urtica+holosericea|title=Plant For a Future database}}</ref>
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| − | Other species names formerly accepted as distinct by some authors but now regarded as [[synonymy|synonyms]] of one or other subspecies include ''U. breweri, U. californica, U. cardiophylla, U. lyalli, U. major, U. procera, U. serra, U. strigosissima, U. trachycarpa'', and ''U. viridis''.
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| − | ==Distribution==
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| − | ''U. dioica'' is abundant in northern Europe and much of Asia, usually found in the countryside. It is less widespread in southern Europe and north Africa, where it is restricted by its need for moist soil, but is still common. In North America, it is widely distributed in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], where it is found in every province and state except for [[Hawaii]], and also can be found in northernmost [[Mexico]]. It grows in abundance in the [[Pacific Northwest]], especially in places where annual rainfall is high. The European subspecies has been introduced into Australia, North America and [[South America]].<ref name="usfs">{{cite web|title=Species: Urtica dioica|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/urtdio/all.html|publisher=United States Forest Service|accessdate=21 September 2013}}</ref><ref name="osu">{{cite web|title=Stinging Nettle|url=http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide/singlerecord.asp?id=210|publisher=Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University|accessdate=21 September 2013}}</ref>
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| − | In Europe, nettles have a strong association with human habitation and buildings. The presence of nettles may indicate the site of a long-abandoned building. Human and animal waste may be responsible for elevated levels of [[phosphate]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Paul L. |date=2012 |title=Indicator Plants: Using Plants to Evaluate the Environment |page=47}}</ref> and [[nitrogen]] in the soil, providing an ideal environment for nettles.
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| − | ==Ecology==
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| − | [[File:Urtica dioica 1.jpg|thumb|right|A stinging nettle growing in a field]]
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| − | Nettles are the exclusive [[larva]]l food plant for several species of [[butterfly|butterflies]], such as the [[Inachis io|peacock butterfly]],<ref>Heiko Bellmann: Der Neue Kosmos Schmetterlingsführer, Schmetterlinge, Raupen und Futterpflanzen, pg. 170, Frankh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH & Co, Stuttgart 2003, {{ISBN|3-440-09330-1}}.</ref> comma (''[[Polygonia c-album]]''), and the [[small tortoiseshell]]. It is also eaten by the larvae of some [[moth]]s including [[angle shades]], [[buff ermine]], [[dot moth]], [[Flame (moth)|the flame]], [[Gothic (moth)|the gothic]], [[grey chi]], [[grey pug]], [[lesser broad-bordered yellow underwing]], [[mouse moth]], [[setaceous Hebrew character]], and [[small angle shades]]. The [[root]]s are sometimes eaten by the larva of the [[ghost moth]] ''Hepialus humuli''.
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| − | Stinging nettle is particularly found as an understory plant in wetter environments, but it is also found in meadows. Although nutritious, it is not widely eaten by either wildlife or livestock, presumably because of the sting. It spreads by abundant seeds and also by [[rhizome]]s, and is often able to survive and re-establish quickly after fire.<ref name="feis">{{cite web|title=Urtica dioica|work=Fire Effects Information System, [Online]|author=Carey, Jennifer H.|year=1995|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/urtdio/all.html}}</ref>
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| − | ==Nettle sting mechanism and treatment==
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| − | [[File:Urtica dioica38 ies.jpg|thumb|''U. dioica '' close-up of the defensive hairs]]
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| − | [[File:Nettle Sting.JPG|thumb|A hand with nettle dermatitis]]
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| − | ''Urtica dioica'' produces its [[inflammation|inflammatory]] effect on skin (stinging, burning sensation often called "contact urticaria") both by impaling the skin via [[trichome|spicule]]s – causing mechanical irritation – and by [[biochemistry|biochemical]] irritants, such as [[histamine]], [[serotonin]], and [[choline]], among other chemicals.<ref name=drugs/><ref name="cummings">{{cite journal|pmid=21396858|year=2011|author1=Cummings|first1=A. J|title=Mechanism of action of stinging nettles|journal=Wilderness & Environmental Medicine|volume=22|issue=2|pages=136–9|last2=Olsen|first2=M|doi=10.1016/j.wem.2011.01.001|url=http://www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-6032(11)00002-0/pdf}}</ref><ref name=moroidin>[http://wildflowerfinder.org.uk/Flowers/N/Nettle%28Stinging%29/Nettle%28Stinging%29.htm Nettle (Stinging)]. Wildflowerfinder.org.uk. Retrieved on 3 July 2012.</ref><ref name="CasarettKlaassen2008">{{cite book|author1=Louis J. Casarett|author2=Curtis D. Klaassen|author3=John Doull|title=Casarett and Doull's toxicology: the basic science of poisons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4yi7-j48uhIC&pg=PA1104|accessdate=22 September 2010|year=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn=978-0-07-147051-3|pages=1104–}}</ref><ref name="Greenberg2003">{{cite book|author=Michael I. Greenberg|title=Occupational, industrial, and environmental toxicology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NnZ23IqU4SoC&pg=PA180|accessdate=22 September 2010|date=4 June 2003|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-01340-6|pages=180–}}</ref> [[antipruritic|Anti-itch drugs]], usually in the form of [[Cream (pharmaceutical)|creams]] containing [[antihistamine]]s or [[hydrocortisone]], may provide relief from nettle [[dermatitis]].<ref name=drugs/> In Great Britain, the use of [[Rumex|dock leaves]] on nettle stings is an established folk remedy, and revolves around the sap released from rubbing the leaf over affected areas of skin, which provides a cooling sensation.<ref>http://bbsrc.ukri.org/documents/stings-pdf/</ref>. Docks and nettles regularly grow in the vicinity of each other due to both plants favouring the same soil conditions, and this may have aided the dock's popularity as a treatment for nettle stings.
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| − | The term, ''contact urticaria'', has a wider use in [[dermatology]], involving dermatitis caused by various skin irritants and [[pathogen]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=3734701|year=2013|author1=Adisesh|first1=A|title=U.K. Standards of care for occupational contact dermatitis and occupational contact urticaria|journal=British Journal of Dermatology|volume=168|issue=6|pages=1167–1175|last2=Robinson|first2=E|last3=Nicholson|first3=P|last4=Sen|first4=D|last5=Wilkinson|first5=M|author6=on behalf of the Standards of Care Working Group|doi=10.1111/bjd.12256}}</ref>
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| − | ==Influence on language and culture==
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| − | In [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]], the stinging nettle (''U. dioica'' subsp. ''dioica'') is the only common stinging plant and has found a place in several [[figure of speech|figures of speech]] in the [[English language]]. [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s [[Henry IV, Part 1|Hotspur]] urges that "out of this nettle, danger, we pluck this flower, safety" (''[[Henry IV, part 1]]'', Act II Scene 3). The figure of speech "to grasp the nettle" probably originated from [[Aesop]]'s fable "The Boy and the Nettle".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19994/19994-h/19994-h.htm#Page_88|title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Æsop For Children, by Æsop |publisher=Gutenberg.org |date=2 December 2006 |accessdate=5 July 2010}}</ref> In [[Seán O'Casey]]'s ''[[Juno and the Paycock]]'', one of the characters quotes Aesop "Gently touch a nettle and it'll sting you for your pains/Grasp it as a lad of mettle and soft as silk remains". The [[metaphor]] may refer to the fact that if a nettle plant is grasped firmly rather than brushed against, it does not sting so readily, because the hairs are crushed down flat and do not penetrate the skin so easily.<ref>{{cite web|author=Doug|date=5 September 2010|title=Grasping the nettle: an empirical enquiry|url=http://doug.dreamwidth.org/206733.html|accessdate=6 September 2010}}</ref>
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| − | In the [[German language]], the [[idiom]] ''sich in die Nesseln setzen'', or to sit in nettles, means to get into trouble.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
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| − | In [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], the idiom ''csalánba nem üt a mennykő'' (no lightning strikes the nettle) means bad things never happen to bad people.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} The same idiom exists in the Serbian language неће гром у коприве.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} In [[Dutch language|Dutch]], a ''netelige situatie'' means a predicament.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} In French, the idiom ''faut pas pousser mémé dans les orties'' (don't push grandma in the nettles) means that we should be careful not to abuse a situation. The name [[urticaria]] for hives comes from the Latin name of nettle (''Urtica'', from urere, to burn).
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| − | The English word 'nettled', meaning irritated or angry, is derived from 'nettle'.<ref>{{Cite OED|nettled}}</ref>
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| − | There is a widespread idea in Great Britain that the nettle was introduced by the Romans<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/guides/z2dr4wx|title=How did the Romans change Britain?|website=BBC Guides|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-08-01}}</ref>. The idea is mentioned by William Camden in his book ''Britannia'' 1586<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://lisalodwick.wordpress.com/2014/04/10/romannettle/|title=Roman nettle – Urtica pilulifera|date=2014-04-10|work=Lisa Lodwick|access-date=2018-08-01|language=en-US}}</ref>. However, in 2011, an early Bronze age burial cist on Whitehorse Hill<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dartmoor.gov.uk/wildlife-and-heritage/heritage/iron-age/whitehorse-hill|title=Whitehorse Hill {{!}} Dartmoor|website=www.dartmoor.gov.uk|language=en|access-date=2018-08-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.archaeology.co.uk/articles/cist-whitehorse-hill.htm|title=The cist on Whitehorse Hill - Current Archaeology|date=2016-12-01|work=Current Archaeology|access-date=2018-08-01|language=en-US}}</ref>, Dartmoor, Devon was excavated. The cist dated from between 1730 and 1600BCE. It contained various high value beads as well as fragments of a sash made from nettle fibre. It is possible that the sash was traded from mainland Europe, but also that it was locally made.
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| − | ==Uses==
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| − | ===Food===
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| − | [[File:Brennnesselspinat.jpg|thumb|right|The young leaves are edible and can be used as [[leaf vegetable]], as with the [[purée]] shown in the above image.]]
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| − | ''U. dioica'' has a flavour similar to [[spinach]] mixed with cucumber when cooked, and is rich in vitamins [[vitamin A|A]] and [[vitamin C|C]], [[Iron#Biological role|iron]], [[potassium#Biological role|potassium]], [[manganese#Biological role|manganese]], and [[calcium#Nutrition|calcium]]. Young plants were harvested by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] and used as a cooked plant in spring when other food plants were scarce.<ref name=Tilford>Gregory L. Tilford, ''Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West'', {{ISBN|0-87842-359-1}}</ref> Soaking stinging nettles in water or cooking removes the stinging chemicals from the plant, which allows them to be handled and eaten without injury. After the stinging nettle enters its flowering and seed-setting stages, the leaves develop gritty particles called [[cystolith]]s, which can irritate the urinary tract.<ref name=Tilford/> In its peak season, nettle contains up to 25% protein, dry weight, which is high for a leafy green vegetable.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/jsfa.2740311210|title=The dietary potential of the common nettle|year=1980|last1=Hughes|first1=R. Elwyn|last2=Ellery|first2=Peter|last3=Harry|first3=Tim|last4=Jenkins|first4=Vivian|last5=Jones|first5=Eleri|journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture|volume=31|issue=12|pages=1279–86|pmid=6259444}}</ref> The leaves are also dried and may then be used to make a<!--article is in British English so not "an"--> [[herbal tea]], as can also be done with the nettle's flowers.
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| − | Nettles can be used in a variety of recipes, such as [[polenta]], [[pesto]], and [[purée]].<ref>[http://www.wattpad.com/399865-1069-recetas-de-cocina-karlos-argui%C3%B1ano?p=71 1069 Recetas de Cocina] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130205222458/http://www.wattpad.com/399865-1069-recetas-de-cocina-karlos-argui%C3%B1ano?p=71 |date=5 February 2013 }} (No 423). Wattpad.com (12 May 2010). Retrieved on 3 July 2012.</ref> [[Nettle soup]] is a common use of the plant, particularly in Northern and Eastern [[Europe]].
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| − | Nettles are sometimes used in cheesemaking, for example in the production of [[Cornish Yarg]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lynherdairies.co.uk/nettles-and-garlic.html |title=Lynher Dairies Nettles & Garlic |publisher=Lynherdairies.co.uk |date= |accessdate=5 July 2010}}</ref> and as a flavouring in varieties of Gouda.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.recipetips.com/glossary-term/t--38676/gouda-cheese-with-stinging-nettles.asp |title=Gouda Cheese with Stinging Nettles: Cooking Terms|publisher=RecipeTips.com |accessdate=5 July 2010}}</ref>
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| − | Nettles are used in [[Albania]] as part of the dough filling for the ''[[börek]]''. The top baby leaves are selected and simmered, then mixed with other ingredients such as herbs and rice, before being used as a filling between dough layers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hermesnews.org/rubriche/8192---.asp|title=Byrek me hithra|language=Albanian|publisher=Hermes News|date=19 March 2012|accessdate=14 May 2017|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024032319/http://www.hermesnews.org/rubriche/8192---.asp|archivedate=24 October 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://urban.al/index.php/kuzhine/item/1084-byrek-me-hithra|title=Byrek me hithra|trans-title=Recipe: Nettles Pie|language=Albanian|date=13 February 2013|accessdate=14 May 2017}}</ref> Similarly, in [[Greece]] the tender leaves are often used, after simmering, as a filling for hortopita, which is similar to [[spanakopita]], but with wild greens rather than spinach for filling.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greekboston.com/cooking/whats-in-horta/|title=What’s In Your Horta?|accessdate=14 May 2017|publisher=GreekBoston|work=Greek Cooking}}</ref>
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| − | ====Competitive eating====
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| − | In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], an annual [[The Bottle Inn#World Nettle Eating Championship|World Nettle Eating Championship]] draws thousands of people to Dorset, where competitors attempt to eat as much of the raw plant as possible. Competitors are given {{convert|60|cm|in|adj=on|abbr=on}} stalks of the plant, from which they strip the leaves and eat them. Whoever strips and eats the most stinging nettle leaves in a fixed time is the winner. The competition dates back to 1986, when two neighbouring farmers attempted to settle a dispute about which had the worst infestation of nettles.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dorset/content/articles/2005/06/17/nettle_eating_feature.shtml|title=World nettle eating championships|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=17 June 2005|accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref><ref>Langley, William. (14 June 2009) [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5525806/World-Stinging-Nettle-Eating-Championship-attracts-record-crowd.html World Stinging Nettle Eating Championship attracts record crowd]. ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' (London). Retrieved on 3 July 2012.</ref>
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| − | ===Drink===
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| − | Nettle leaves are steeped in a concentrated sugar solution to extract the flavour.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}} The leaves are then removed and a source of citric acid (usually lemon juice) is added to help preserve the cordial and add a tart flavour.
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| − | Commercially produced cordials are generally quite concentrated and are usually diluted by one part cordial to ten parts water – thus a {{Convert|0.5|l|adj=on|abbr=on}} bottle of cordial would be enough for {{convert|5.5|l}} diluted. The high concentration of sugar in nettle cordial gives it a long shelf life.
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| − | Also, many recipes for alcoholic nettle beer are used, which is a countryside favourite in the British Isles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.selfsufficientish.com/main/2009/10/nettle-beer-andy-hamilton/|title=Nettle beer recipe |publisher=Selfsufficientish.com|author=Andy Hamilton|date=29 October 2009|accessdate=21 September 2015}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=March 2018}}
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| − | ===Traditional medicine===
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| − | ''U. dioica'' herb has been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally (as tea or fresh leaves) to treat disorders of the kidneys and urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, locomotor system, skin, cardiovascular system, hemorrhage, influenza, rheumatism, and gout.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vogl|first1=S|last2=Picker|first2=P|last3=Mihaly-Bison|first3=J|last4=Fakhrudin|first4=N|last5=Atanasov|first5=AG|last6=Heiss|first6=EH|last7=Wawrosch|first7=C|last8=Reznicek |first8=G|last9=Dirsch|first9=VM|last10=Saukel|first10=J|last11=Kopp|first11=B|year=2013|title=Ethnopharmacological in vitro studies on Austria's folk medicine - An unexplored lore in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of 71 Austrian traditional herbal drugs|journal=J Ethnopharmacol|volume=149|issue=3|pages=750–71|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2013.06.007|pmid=23770053|pmc=3791396}}</ref>
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| − | As [[Old English]] ''stiðe'', nettle is one of the nine plants invoked in the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|pagan Anglo-Saxon]] ''[[Nine Herbs Charm]]'', recorded in the 10th century. Nettle was believed to be a [[galactagogue]], a substance that promotes lactation.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/cjmrp/article/view/104|author=Westfall R.E.|title=Galactagogue herbs: a qualitative study and review|journal=Canadian Journal of Midwifery Research and Practice|volume=2|issue=2|pages=22–27|year=2003}}</ref>
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| − | Urtication, or flogging with nettles, is the process of deliberately applying stinging nettles to the skin in order to provoke inflammation. An agent thus used is known as a [[rubefacient]] (something that causes redness). This is done as a [[folk remedy]] for treatment of [[rheumatism]].<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|title=Stinging Nettles|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/place-london/plain/A1310950|publisher=BBC|accessdate=21 September 2013}}</ref> In Ecuador there are indigenous healers that use stinging nettles with the belief that they improve fatigue and circulation, by rubbing raw leaves or flogging the plant directly on the body.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/lifestyle/11014032/Ben-Fogles-country-travels-in-my-underpants-in-Ecuador.html|title=Ben Fogle's country travels: in my underpants in Ecuador|last=Fogle|first=Ben|date=2014-08-06|access-date=2018-07-25|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref>
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| − | ===Textiles and fibre===
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| − | [[File:Textielmuseum-cabinet-13.jpg|thumb|Nettle fibre, stem, yarn, textile, jewellery with glass and nettle yarn]]
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| − | Nettle stems contain a [[bast fibre]] that has been traditionally used for the same purposes as [[linen]] and is produced by a similar [[retting]] process. Unlike [[cotton]], nettles grow easily without [[pesticides]]. The fibres are coarser, however.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/uk_news/england/leicestershire/3857445.stm|publisher=BBC News|title=Student shows off nettle knickers|date=1 July 2004|accessdate=24 May 2010}}</ref>
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| − | Historically, nettles have been used to make clothing for 2,000 years, and German Army uniforms were almost all made from nettle during World War I due to a potential shortage of cotton. More recently, companies in Austria, Germany, and Italy have started to produce commercial nettle textiles.<ref>Neustatter, Angela (27 February 2008). [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/28/ethicalliving.fashion "Rash thinking"]. ''The Guardian''.</ref><ref>Flintoff, John-Paul (20 August 2009). [http://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/clothing/304924/second_skin_why_wearing_nettles_is_the_next_big_thing.html "Second skin: why wearing nettles is the next big thing"]. ''The Ecologist''.</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | The fibre content in nettle shows a high variability and reaches from below 1% to 17%. Under middle-European conditions, stems yield typically between 45 and 55 dt / ha, which is comparable to [[Flax|flax]] stem yield. Due to the variable fibre content, the fibre yields vary between 0.2 and 7 dt / ha, but the yields are normally in the range between 2 and 4 dt / ha.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tll.de/ainfo/pdf/fnes0403.pdf|title=10 Jahre anbautechnische Versuche zu Fasernesseln (Urtica dioica L.) in Thüringen|last=Wurl|first=Günter|last2=Graf|first2=Torsten|last3=Vettel|first3=Armin|last4=Biertümpfel|first4=Andrea|publisher=Thüringer Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft}}</ref> Fibre varieties are normally cloning varieties and therefore planted from vegetative propagated plantlets. Direct seeding is possible, but leads to great heterogeneity in maturity.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://orgprints.org/6926/1/AJAA18_3_2003_nettle.pdf|title=Production and processing of organically grown fibre nettle (Urtica dioica L.) and its potential use in the natural textile industry: A review|last=Vogl|first=C. R.|year=2003|journal=American Journal of Alternative Agriculture|doi=10.1079/AJAA200242|last2=Hartl|first2=A.|pages=119–128|volume=18|issue=3}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Nettles may be used as a [[dye|dye-stuff]], producing yellow from the roots, or yellowish green from the leaves.<ref>Piers Warren, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HI6d7MkVEXoC&printsec=frontcover ''101 uses for Stinging Nettles''] (2006), p. 65, {{ISBN|0-9541899-9-X}}.</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ===Feed===
| |
| − | | |
| − | ====Nutrient contents====
| |
| − | Fresh leaves contain approximately 82.4% water, 17.6% dry matter, 5.5% protein, 0.7 to 3.3% fat, and 7.1% carbohydrates.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|title=Die Brennessel in Heilkunde und Ernährung|last=Lutomski|first=Jerzy|journal=Pharmazie in unserer Zeit|doi=10.1002/pauz.19830120602|last2=Speichert|first2=Henryk|year=1983|pages=181–186|volume=12|issue=6|language=de}}</ref> Mature leaves contain about 40% ''[[Alpha-Linolenic acid|α]]''[[Alpha-Linolenic acid|- linolenic acid]], a valuable omega-3 acid.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889157502001722|title=Fatty acids and carotenoids from Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica L.)|last=Guil-Guerrero|first=J. L.|year=2003|journal=[[Journal of Food Composition and Analysis]]|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|doi=10.1016/S0889-1575(02)00172-2|last2=Rebolloso-Fuentes|first2=M. M.|pages=111–119|first3=M. E.|last3=Torija Isasa|volume=16|issue=2}}</ref> For exact fatty acid contents see Table 1. Seeds contain much more fatty acid than leaves.<ref name=":0"/>
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | | colspan="7" |
| |
| − | '''Table 1: Fatty acid content of different plant organs of ''U. dioica''.<ref name=":0" /> <br>
| |
| − | Standard deviations are given in brackets.'''
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! !! !! Mature Leaves !! Young Leaves !! Seeds !! Stems !! Roots
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Moisture (% fresh weight)|| || 72.8 <small>(± 5.1)</small> || 82.0 <small>(± 3.7</small>) || 47.6 <small>(± 2.1)</small>||50.1 <small>(± 2.4)</small>||40.3 <small>(±2.8)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Saponifiable oil (% fresh weight)|| ||2.1 <small>(± 0.3)</small>||3.3 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||15.1 <small>(± 2.0)</small>||1.5 <small>(± 0.1)</small>||0.1 <small>(± 0.0)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | colspan="2" |
| |
| − | Fatty acids (% of saponifiable oil)
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Palmitic acid|Palmitic]]||16:0||17.9 <small>(± 1.1)</small>||20.1 <small>(± 0.9)</small> ||25.4 <small>(± 1.9)</small>||23.6 <small>(± 2.1</small>)||24.0 <small>(± 0.8)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Palmitoleic acid|Palmitoleic]]||16:1n-7||3.0 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||3.9 <small>(± 0.3)</small>||0.7 <small>(± 0.0)</small>||0.5 <small>(± 0.0)</small>||2.6 <small>(± 0.3)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Stearic acid|Stearic]]||18:0||1.6 <small>(± 0.3)</small>||1.9 <small>(± 0.1)</small>||2.3 <small>(± 0.3)</small>||1.8 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||1.6 <small>(± 0.1)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Oleic acid|Oleic]]||18:1n-9||1.7 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||2.8 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||4.8 <small>(± 0.3)</small>||2.1 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||8.7 <small>(± 0.5)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Linoleic acid|Linoleic]]||18:2n-6||11.6 <small>(± 1.0)</small>||18.1 <small>(± 1.3)</small>||22.7 <small>(± 1.9)</small>||33.8 <small>(± 2.9)</small>||34.3 <small>(± 2.7)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |''[[Alpha-Linolenic acid|α]]''[[Alpha-Linolenic acid|- Linolenic]]||18:3n-3||40.7 <small>(± 3.2)</small>||29.6 <small>(± 2.1)</small>||6.6 <small>(± 4.9)</small>||12.2 <small>(± 1.0)</small>||2.3 <small>(± 0.1)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Gadoleic acid|Gadoleic]]||20:1n-9||0.8 <small>(± 0.0)</small>||0.7 <small>(± 0.0)</small>||2.1 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||1.5 <small>(± 0.1)</small>||1.2 <small>(± 0.0)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Erucic acid|Erucic]]||22:1n-9||0.4 <small>(± 0.0)</small>||0.5 <small>(± 0.1)</small>||1.2 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||0.9 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||0.9 <small>(± 0.1)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Omega-3 : Omega-6 Ratio||n-3/n-6||3.51||1.64||0.29 ||0.65||0.07
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − | | |
| − | Minerals (Ca, K, Mg, P, Si, S, Cl) and trace elements (Mn, Cu, Fe) contents depend mostly on the soil and the season.<ref name=":1" />
| |
| − | | |
| − | [[Carotenoid]]s can be found primarily in the leaves, where different forms of [[lutein]], [[xanthophyll]] and [[carotene]] are present (Table 2). Some carotenes are precursors of [[vitamin A]] (retinol), their retinol equivalents RE or retinol activity equivalents per g dry weight are 1.33 for mature leaves and 0.9 for young leaves.<ref name=":1"/> Nettle contains much less than carotenes and retinol than carrots, which contain 8.35 RE per g fresh weight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2901?manu=&fgcd=|title=USDA National Nutrient Database: raw carrot|accessdate=28 November 2015}}</ref> Depending on the batch and the leave and stem content, nettle contains only traces of zeaxanthin or between 20 – 60 mg / kg of dry matter.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":2">{{cite journal|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377840113002769|title=Utility of nettle (Urtica dioica) in layer diets as a natural yellow colorant for egg yolk|last=Loetscher|first=Y.|date=13 December 2013|journal=Animal Feed Science and Technology|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2013.10.006|last2=Kreuzer|first2=M.|last3=Messikommer|first3=R. E.|pages=158–168|volume=186|issue=3–4}}</ref> Nettle contains ascorbic acid ([[vitamin C]]), riboflavin ([[Riboflavin|vitamin B<sub>2</sub>]]), [[pantothenic acid]], vitamin K<sub>1</sub><ref name=":1"/> and tocopherols ([[vitamin E]]).<ref name=":2"/> The highest vitamin contents can be found in the leaves.<ref name=":1"/>
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | | colspan="4" |
| |
| − | '''Table 2: Carotenoid concentration of leaves of ''U. dioica'' (μg/ g dry weight).<ref name=":0"/> <br>
| |
| − | Standard deviations are given in brackets.'''
| |
| − | | |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! !! !!Mature leaves!!Young leaves
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Total identified carotenoids|| ||74.8||51.4
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Xanthophyll]]s||Neoxanthin||5.0 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||2.6 <small>(± 0.2)</small> 0
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ||Violaxanthin||11.0 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||7.2 <small>(± 0.6)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ||Zeaxanthin||traces||traces
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ||''β''-cryptoxanthin||traces||traces
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Lutein]]s||13-''cis''-lutein||0.4 <small>(± 0.0)</small>||0.4 <small>(± 0.0)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ||13’-''cis''-lutein||8.4 <small>(± 0.4)</small>||5.0 <small>(± 0.6)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ||All-''trans''-lutein||32.4 <small>(± 1.0)</small>||23.6 <small>(± 0.8)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ||9-''cis''-lutein||1.2 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||1.0 <small>(± 0.2)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ||9’-''cis''-lutein||4.4 <small>(± 0.4)</small>||3.4 <small>(± 0.6)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | [[Carotene]]s
| |
| − | ||All-''trans-β''-carotene||5.6 <small>(± 0.7)</small>||3.8 <small>(± 0.3)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ||''β''-carotene-''cis''-isomers||4.8 <small>(± 0.2)</small>||3.2 <small>(± 0.2)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ||Lycopene||1.6 <small>(± 0.1)</small>||1.2 <small>(± 0.1)</small>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Retinol equivalent||RE / g dry wt||1.33 <small>(± 0.3)</small>||0.90 <small>(± 0.3)</small>
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − | | |
| − | ====Poultry: Egg yolk colouring in laying hens====
| |
| − | In laying hens, nettle can be used as an egg yolk colorant instead of artificial pigments or other natural pigments (derived from [[Tagetes|marigold]] for yellow). Nettle has high carotenoid contents, especially [[lutein]], [[Beta-Carotene|β-carotene]] and [[zeaxanthin]], of which lutein and zeaxanthin act as yellow pigments.<ref name=":2"/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Oxidative stability of the meat of broilers supplemented with rosemary leaves, rosehip fruits, chokeberry pomace, and entire nettle, and effects on performance and meat quality|last=Loetscher|first=Y.|year=2013|journal=Poultry Science|doi=10.3382/ps.2013-03258|last2=Kreuzer|first2=M.|last3=Messikommer|first3=R. E.|volume=92|issue=11|pages=2938–2948}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.civilica.com/Printable-JR_IJABBR-2-9_007=Growth-Performance-Blood-Metabolites-Antioxidant-Stability-and-Carcass-Characteristics-of-Broiler-Chickens-Fed-Diets-Containing-Nettle-Urtica-dioica-L-Powder-or.html|title=Growth Performance, Blood Metabolites, Antioxidant Stability and Carcass Characteristics of Broiler Chickens Fed Diets Containing Nettle (Urtica dioica. L) Powder or Essential Oil|last=Keshavarz|first=Mehdi|year=2014|journal=International Journal of Advanced Biological and Biomedical Research|last2 =Rezaeipour|last3=Asadzadeh|first2=Vahid|first3=Sakineh|issn=2322-4827|volume=2|issue=9|pages=2553–2561}}</ref> Feeding as little as 6.25 g dry nettle per kg feed is as effective as the synthetic pigments to colour the egg yolk. Feeding nettle has no detrimental effect on the performance of the laying hens or the general egg quality.<ref name=":2"/>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ====Ruminants====
| |
| − | {{unreferenced section|date=November 2017}}
| |
| − | Ruminants also avoid fresh stinging nettles, however if the nettles are wilted or dry, voluntary intake can be high. Dry nettle shoots are said to be “as good as good alfalfa hay”. As with other leafy herbs with relatively hard stems, the harvest should be done carefully to avoid leave drop losses. Nettle can be conserved as [[hay]] or [[silage]].
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − |
| |
| − | | colspan="4" |
| |
| − | '''Table 3: Contents of ryegrass and nettle silage<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377840114000327|title=The effect of adding stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) haylage to a total mixed ration on performance and rumen function of lactating dairy cows|last=Humphries|first=David J.|date=March 2014|journal=Animal Feed Science and Technology|doi=10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2014.01.006|last2=Reynolds|first2=Chris K.|volume=189|pages=72–81|publisher=Elsevier}}</ref><br>
| |
| − | (g / kg dry matter, if not stated otherwise) '''
| |
| − |
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! !! !!Ryegrass Silage!!Nettle Silage
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Dry matter||DM||235||415
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Metabolizable energy]] (MJ/ kg DM)||ME||11.3||9.8
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Crude Protein||CP||177||171
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |[[Neutral Detergent Fiber|Neutral detergent fibre]]||aNDF||536||552
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Acid detergent fibre||ADF||338||434
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Starch|| ||-||-
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |Ash|| ||113||118
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − | | |
| − | ===Gardening===
| |
| − | Nettles have a number of other uses in the vegetable garden, including the potential for encouraging beneficial insects. Since nettles prefer to grow in phosphorus-rich and nitrogen rich soils that have recently been disturbed (and thus aerated), the growth of nettles is an indicator that an area has high fertility (especially [[phosphate]] and [[nitrate]]), and thus is an indicator to gardeners as to the quality of the soil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.garden-helper.com/Learn/Charts_And_Tables/indicator-weeds-soil-conditions.asp |title=Indicator Weeds and Soil Conditions at|publisher=Garden-helper.com|accessdate=5 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.herbalpractitioner.com/virtual-herb-walk.html|title=virtual-herb-walk|publisher=Herbalpractitioner.com|accessdate=5 July 2010}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2015|reason=sources don't mention phosphorus or nitrogen}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | Nettles contain a lot of [[nitrogen|nitrogenous compounds]], so are used as a compost activator<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1310950|title=h2g2 – Stinging Nettles|publisher=BBC DNA|accessdate=5 July 2010}}</ref> or can be used to make a liquid fertilizer, which although somewhat low in phosphate, is useful in supplying [[magnesium]], [[sulphur]], and [[iron]].<ref>Pears, Pauline, ''et al.'' ''HDRA Encyclopedia Of Organic Gardening'', p. 207, Dorling Kindersley Ltd, London, 2005.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/organics/compostmulch/composttea/OtherTeas.htm|title=Compost Teas vs Other Teas and Extracts|publisher=Ciwmb.ca.gov|accessdate=5 July 2010}}</ref> They are also one of the few plants that can tolerate, and flourish in, soils rich in poultry droppings.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Recent experiments have shown that nettles are a [[beneficial weed]], having use as a [[companion plant]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bcliving.ca/garden/stinging-nettle-companion-plant-and-medicinal-herb|title='Stinging Nettle: Companion Plant and Medicinal Herb'|publisher=bcliving.ca|date=8 May 2009|accessdate=16 June 2012}}</ref> The stinging nettle is the [[Vanessa atalanta|Red Admiral]] caterpillar's primary host plant and can attract migrating Red Admiral butterflies to a garden.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bryant|first=Simon|last2=Thomas|first2=Chris|last3=Bale|first3=Jeffrey|date=1997-11-01|title=Nettle-feeding nymphalid butterflies: temperature, development and distribution|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2311.1997.00082.x/abstract|journal=Ecological Entomology|language=en|volume=22|issue=4|pages=390–398|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2311.1997.00082.x|issn=1365-2311}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ''U. dioica'' can be a troubling weed, and mowing can increase plant density.<ref name="Anderson1999">{{cite book|author=Wood Powell Anderson|title=Perennial weeds: characteristics and identification of selected herbaceous species|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5qGQsJl1v60C&pg=PA25|accessdate=17 October 2010|year=1999|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-8138-2520-5|pages=25–}}</ref> Regular and persistent [[tilling (agriculture)|tilling]] will greatly reduce its numbers, and the use of herbicides such as [[2,4-D]] and [[glyphosate]] are effective control measures.<ref name="Anderson1999"/>
| |
| − | | |
| − | == Field cultivation ==
| |
| − | | |
| − | === Sowing and planting===
| |
| − | | |
| − | Three cultivation techniques can be used for the stinging nettle: 1) direct sowing, 2) growing seedlings in nurseries with subsequent transplantation and 3) vegetative propagation via [[stolon]]s or head cuttings.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heyland|first1=Klaus-Ulrich|title=Ölfrüchte, Faserpflanzen, Arzneipflanzen und Sonderkulturen|journal=Handbuch des Pflanzenbaues|date=2006|volume=Band 4|publisher=Ulmer|location=Stuttgart}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | # Direct sowing: The [[seedbed]] should have a loose and fine structure, but should be reconsolidated using a packer roller imminently prior to sowing.<ref name=Bomme>{{cite journal|last1=Bomme|first1=U.|title=Kulturanleitung für Brennnesseln|journal=Bayerische Landesanstalt für Bodenkultur und Pflanzenbau, Abteilung Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenzüchtung, LBP Freising|date=1996|location=München}}</ref> Sowing time can be either in autumn<ref name=Heeger/> or in spring.<ref name=BU>{{cite journal|author1=Bomme U.|author2=Unterholzerner S|title=Günstigste Verfahren zum Anbau der Grossen Brennnessel|journal=Gemüse 3|date=1996|pages=233–234}}</ref> Seed density should be 6 kg/ha with row spacing of {{convert|30|cm}} and 42–50 cm in autumn and spring, respectively.<ref name=Bomme/><ref name=Heeger/><ref name=DP/> The disadvantage of direct sowing is that it usually leads to incomplete plant coverage.<ref name=Bomme/><ref name=DP>{{cite journal|author1=Dachler M.|author2=Pelzmann H.|title=Arznei- und Gewürzpflanzen.|journal=Anbau — Ernte — Aufbereitung. 2. Auflage|year=1999|publisher=Österreichischer Agrarverlag (VUA)|location=Wien}}</ref> This drawback can be mitigated by covering the seedbed with a transparent perforated foil in order to improve seed germination.<ref name=Bomme/><ref name=Heeger>{{cite journal|last1=Heeger|first1=E. F.|title=Handbuch des Arznei- und Gewürzpflanzenbaus|publisher =Deutscher Bauernverlag|date=1956|location=Leipzig}}</ref> Further, weed control can be problematic as the stinging nettle has a slow seedling development time.<ref name=Bomme/>
| |
| − | # Growing seedlings: For this technique pre-germinated seeds are sown between mid-/end-February and beginning of April and grown in [[Plant nursery|nurseries]]. Seedlings are grown in tuffs with 3-5 plants / tuff and a seed density of 1.2-1.6 kg / 1000 tuffs. A fastened germination is achieved by alternating high temperature during daytime (30 °C for 8 h) and lower temperature during nighttime (20 °C for 16 h).<ref name=Bomme/><ref name=DP/> Before transplanting, the seedlings should be fertilized and acclimated to cold temperatures.<ref name=Bomme/> Transplantation should start around Mid-April with row spacing of {{convert|42|–|50|cm}} and plant spacing within rows of 25–30 cm.<ref name=BU/><ref name=DP/>
| |
| − | # Vegetative propagation: [[Stolon]]s (with several buds) of 10 cm should be planted from Mid-April in a depth of {{convert|5|-|7|cm}}.<ref name=BU/> Head cuttings are grown in [[Plant nursery|nurseries]] starting between mid-May and mid-June. Growing tips with two leaf-pairs are cut from the mother plant and treated with root-growth inducing hormones. Transplantation can be delayed in comparison to the growing seedling technique.<ref name=Bomme/>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Greenhouse cultivation==
| |
| − | | |
| − | The stinging nettle can also been grown in [[controlled-environment agriculture]] systems, such as soil-less medium cultivations or [[aeroponics]], which may achieve higher yields, standardize quality, and reduce harvesting costs and contamination.<ref name=aeroponics>{{cite journal|author1=Pagliarulo, C.L.|author2=Hayden, A.L.|author3=Giacomelli, G.A.|title=Potential for greenhouse aeroponic cultivation of Urtica dioica|journal=Acta Horticulturae|year=2004|volume=659|pages=61–66}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Etymology==
| |
| − | ''Urtica'' is derived from a [[Latin]] word meaning 'sting'.<ref name="gledhill">Gledhill, David (2008). "The Names of Plants". Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|9780521866453}} (hardback), {{ISBN|9780521685535}} (paperback). pp 142, 395</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ''Dioica'' is derived from [[Greek language|Greek]], meaning 'of two houses' (having separate staminate and pistillate plants; [[dioecious]]).<ref name="gledhill" />
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Gallery==
| |
| − | <gallery>
| |
| − | File:Kopiva.JPG|Young shoot
| |
| − | File:Urtica dioica19 ies.jpg|Flowers (male) can be yellow
| |
| − | File:Urtica dioica26 ies.jpg|Flowers (male) can be purple
| |
| − | File:Urtica dioica35 ies.jpg|Flowers (female) can be green and white
| |
| − | File:Urtica dioica32 ies.jpg|Fruits
| |
| − | </gallery>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==See also==
| |
| − | *[[Urtica#In folklore|Nettles in folklore]]
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==References==
| |
| − | {{Reflist|35em}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Further reading==
| |
| − | *{{cite journal|author=Elliott, C.|year=1997|title=Rash Encounters|journal=Horticulture|page=30|volume=94}}
| |
| − | *Schofield, Janice J. (1998). ''Nettles'' {{ISBN|0-585-10500-6}}
| |
| − | *Thiselton-Dyer, T. F., (1889). ''[http://www.dominiopublico.gov.br/download/texto/gu010118.pdf The Folk-Lore of Plants]''.
| |
| − | *Glawe, G. A. (2006). ''Sex ratio variation and sex determination in Urtica diocia.'' {{ISBN|90-6464-026-2}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==External links==
| |
| − | {{Commons|Urtica dioica|Stinging nettle}}
| |
| − | *{{GRIN|''Urtica dioica'' L.|40944|2014-12-15}}
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| − | *[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=220014002 Flora of China: ''Urtica dioica'']
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| − | {{Taxonbar|from=Q155909}}
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| − | | |
| − | [[Category:Urtica|dioica]]
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| − | [[Category:Fiber plants]]
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| − | [[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
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| − | [[Category:Flora of Europe]]
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| − | [[Category:Flora of temperate Asia]]
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| − | [[Category:Flora of North Africa]]
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| − | [[Category:Flora of North America]]
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| − | [[Category:Medicinal plants]]
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| − | [[Category:Poisonous plants]]
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| − | [[Category:Dioecious plants]]
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| − | [[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
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| − | [[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
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| − | [[Category:Plants used in Native American cuisine]]
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