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| − | {{about|plants in the family Poaceae known as grasses|other uses and meanings of "grass"|Grass (disambiguation)}}
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| − | {{refimprove|date=March 2016}}
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| | {{automatic taxobox | | {{automatic taxobox |
| | |name = Grasses | | |name = Grasses |
| − | |fossil_range = [[Late Cretaceous]]<ref name="DinosDined" /> - recent, {{fossilrange|66|0}} | + | |fossil_range = [[Late Cretaceous]]<ref name="DinosDined">{{cite journal |
| | + | | last1 = Piperno |
| | + | | first1 = Dolores R. |
| | + | | last2 = Sues |
| | + | | first2 = Hans-Dieter |
| | + | | date = 2005 |
| | + | | title = Dinosaurs Dined on Grass |
| | + | | journal = Science |
| | + | | volume = 310 |
| | + | | issue = 5751 |
| | + | | pages = 1126–8 |
| | + | | doi = 10.1126/science.1121020 |
| | + | | pmid = 16293745 |
| | + | }}</ref> - recent, {{fossilrange|66|0}} |
| | |image = Meadow Foxtail head.jpg | | |image = Meadow Foxtail head.jpg |
| | |image_caption = Flowering head of meadow foxtail (''[[Alopecurus pratensis]]''), with stamens exerted at anthesis | | |image_caption = Flowering head of meadow foxtail (''[[Alopecurus pratensis]]''), with stamens exerted at anthesis |
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| | * [[Puelioideae]] | | * [[Puelioideae]] |
| | }} | | }} |
| − | [[File:Grass Blades.jpg|thumb|Blades of grass]]
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| | '''Poaceae''' or '''Gramineae''' is a large and nearly ubiquitous [[Family (biology)|family]] of [[Monocotyledon|monocotyledonous]] [[flowering plants]] known as '''grasses'''. Poaceae includes the [[cereal]] grasses, [[bamboo]]s and the grasses of natural [[grassland]] and cultivated [[lawn]]s (turf) and pasture. Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. With ca 780 genera and around 12,000 species,<ref name="Christenhusz-Byng2016">{{cite journal |first1=M.J.M. |last1=Christenhusz |first2=J.W. |last2=Byng | year = 2016 | title = The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 261 | pages = 201–217 | url = http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 | issue = 3 | publisher = Magnolia Press }}</ref> Poaceae are the fifth-largest [[:Category:plant families|plant family]], following the [[Asteraceae]], [[Orchidaceae]], [[Fabaceae]] and [[Rubiaceae]].<ref name="Stevens">{{cite web|url=http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb|title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Website|accessdate=20 March 2016}}</ref> | | '''Poaceae''' or '''Gramineae''' is a large and nearly ubiquitous [[Family (biology)|family]] of [[Monocotyledon|monocotyledonous]] [[flowering plants]] known as '''grasses'''. Poaceae includes the [[cereal]] grasses, [[bamboo]]s and the grasses of natural [[grassland]] and cultivated [[lawn]]s (turf) and pasture. Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. With ca 780 genera and around 12,000 species,<ref name="Christenhusz-Byng2016">{{cite journal |first1=M.J.M. |last1=Christenhusz |first2=J.W. |last2=Byng | year = 2016 | title = The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 261 | pages = 201–217 | url = http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 | issue = 3 | publisher = Magnolia Press }}</ref> Poaceae are the fifth-largest [[:Category:plant families|plant family]], following the [[Asteraceae]], [[Orchidaceae]], [[Fabaceae]] and [[Rubiaceae]].<ref name="Stevens">{{cite web|url=http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb|title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Website|accessdate=20 March 2016}}</ref> |
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| − | [[Grassland]]s such as savannah and prairie where grasses are dominant are estimated to constitute 40.5% of the land area of the [[Earth]], excluding [[Greenland]] and [[Antarctica]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y8344e/y8344e05.htm|title=Grassland of the world|last=Reynolds|first=S.G.|date=|website=www.fao.org|publisher=|access-date=2016-10-04}}</ref> Grasses are also an important part of the vegetation in many other habitats, including [[wetland]]s, [[forest]]s and [[tundra]]. | + | == Uses == |
| − | The Poaceae are the most economically important plant family, providing staple foods from domesticated [[cereal]] crops such as [[maize]] (corn), [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[barley]], and [[millet]] as well as forage, building materials ([[bamboo]], [[thatch]], [[straw]]) and fuel ([[ethanol]]).
| + | Grasses are, in human terms, perhaps the most economically important plant family. Their economic importance stems from several areas, including food production, industry, and [[lawn]]s. They have been grown as food for [[domesticated animals]] for up to 6,000 years and the grains of grasses such as [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[maize]] (corn) and [[barley]] have been the most important human [[food crop]]s. Grasses are also used in the manufacture of [[thatching|thatch]], [[paper]], [[fuel]], [[clothing]], [[Building insulation|insulation]], timber for [[fence|fencing]], [[furniture]], [[scaffolding]] and [[construction]] materials, floor [[matting]], [[#Sports turf|sports turf]] and [[basket weaving|baskets]]. |
| | + | |
| | + | === Food production === |
| | + | Agricultural grasses grown for their edible seeds are called [[cereal]]s or grains (although the latter term, agriculturally, refers to both cereals and [[legumes]]). Three cereals – [[rice]], [[wheat]], and [[maize]] (corn) – provide more than half of all calories eaten by humans.<ref name="Raven and Johnson">{{cite book|title=Understanding Biology|edition=3rd|first1=P.H. |last1=Raven |first2=G.B. |last2=Johnson |page=536|isbn=0-697-22213-6|year=1995|editor=Carol J. Mills|publisher=WM C. Brown}}</ref> Of all crops, 70% are grasses.<ref name="Time life 19">{{cite book|title=Grasslands and Tundra|publisher=Time Life Books|year=1985|series=Planet Earth|editor=George Constable|isbn=0-8094-4520-4|page=19}}</ref> Cereals constitute the major source of [[carbohydrate]]s for humans and perhaps the major source of protein, and include rice in [[Southern Asia|southern]] and [[eastern Asia]], maize in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], and wheat and [[barley]] in [[Europe]], [[northern Asia]] and the [[Americas]]. |
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| − | Though commonly called "grasses", [[seagrasses]], [[Juncaceae|rushes]], and [[Cyperaceae|sedges]] fall outside this family (see [[Grass (disambiguation)]]). The rushes and sedges are related to the Poaceae, being members of the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Poales]], but the seagrasses are members of order [[Alismatales]].
| + | [[Sugarcane]] is the major source of [[sugar]] production. Additional food uses include [[sprouting|sprouted grain]], |
| | + | [[shoot]]s, [[rhizome]]s and [[sugar]]), drink ([[sugarcane juice]], [[plant milk]], [[rum]], [[beer]], [[whisky]], [[Żubrówka|vodka]]). |
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| − | ==Etymology==
| + | [[Lemongrass]] is used as a culinary herb for its scent. |
| − | The name Poaceae was given by [[John Hendley Barnhart]] in 1895,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Barnhart| first=John Hendley |date=15 January 1895 |title=Family nomenclature|journal=Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-2485402 |location=Lancaster, PA, USA |accessdate=5 June 2016 }}</ref>{{rp|7}} based on the tribe Poeae described in 1814 by [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Robert Brown]], and the type genus ''[[Poa]]'' described in 1753 by [[Carl Linnaeus]]. The term is derived from the Ancient Greek [[Wiktionary:Poa|πόα (póa, “fodder”)]].
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| − | == Evolutionary history ==
| + | Many species of grasses are grown as [[pasture]] for forage and [[fodder]] for [[livestock]], particularly for [[sheep]] and [[cattle]]. They may be cut and stored in the form of [[hay]], [[straw]] or [[silage]] for use during the winter. Hay and straw are used for animal bedding. |
| − | Grasses include some of the most versatile [[plant life-form]]s. They became widespread toward the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and fossilized [[dinosaur]] dung ([[coprolite]]s) have been found containing [[phytolith]]s of a variety that include grasses that are related to modern [[rice]] and [[bamboo]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Dinosaurs Dined on Grass |first=Dolores R. |last=Piperno |first2=Hans-Dieter |last2=Sues |journal=[[Science (magazine)|Science]] |date=18 November 2005 |volume=310 |issue=5751 |pages=1126–1128 |doi=10.1126/science.1121020 |pmid=16293745}}</ref> Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush [[rain forest]]s, dry [[desert]]s, cold mountains and even [[Intertidal ecology|intertidal habitat]]s, and are currently the most widespread plant type; grass is a valuable source of food and energy for all sorts of wildlife and organics.
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| − | A cladogram shows subfamilies and approximate species numbers in brackets:<ref name="GPWGII 2012">{{cite journal |author=Grass Phylogeny Working Group II |date=2012 |title=New grass phylogeny resolves deep evolutionary relationships and discovers C<sub>4</sub> origins |journal=New Phytologist |volume=193 |issue=2 |pages=304–312 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03972.x |pmid=22115274}} {{open access}}</ref>
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| | {{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:75%;width:800px; | | {{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:75%;width:800px; |
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| − | Before 2005, fossil findings indicated that grasses evolved around 55 million years ago. Recent findings of grass-like [[phytolith]]s in [[Cretaceous]] dinosaur [[coprolite]]s have pushed this date back to 66 million years ago.<ref name="DinosDined">{{cite journal
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| − | | last1 = Piperno
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| − | | first1 = Dolores R.
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| − | | last2 = Sues
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| − | | first2 = Hans-Dieter
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| − | | date = 2005
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| − | | title = Dinosaurs Dined on Grass
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| − | | journal = Science
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| − | | volume = 310
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| − | | issue = 5751
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| − | | pages = 1126–8
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| − | | doi = 10.1126/science.1121020
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| − | | pmid = 16293745
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| − | }}</ref><ref name="Prasad2005">{{cite journal
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| − | | last1= Prasad |first1=V. |last2=Stroemberg |first2=C.A.E. |last3=Alimohammadian |first3=H. |last4=Sahni |first4=A.
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| − | | date = 2005
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| − | | title = Dinosaur coprolites and the early evolution of grasses and grazers
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| − | | journal = Science
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| − | | volume = 310
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| − | | issue = 5751
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| − | | pages = 1177–1180
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| − | | doi=10.1126/science.1118806
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| − | | pmid = 16293759
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| − | }}</ref> In 2011, revised dating of the origins of the rice tribe [[Oryzeae]] suggested a date as early as 107 to 129 Mya.<ref name=Prasadetal>{{cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=V. |last2=Strömberg |first2=C.A. |last3=Leaché |first3=A.D. |last4=Samant |first4=B. |last5=Patnaik |first5=R. |last6=Tang |first6=L. |last7=Mohabey |first7=D.M. |last8=Ge |first8=S. |last9=Sahni |first9=A. |date=2011 |title=Late Cretaceous origin of the rice tribe provides evidence for early diversification in Poaceae |journal=Nature Communications |volume=2 |page=480 |doi=10.1038/ncomms1482 |pmid=21934664 }}</ref> A [[multituberculate]] mammal with "grass-eating" adaptations seems to suggest that grasses were already around at 120 mya.<ref>[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/06/25/national/science-health/fossilized-mammal-skeleton-from-the-dinosaur-era-found-in-central-japan/#.V3Bi_zWrlyF]</ref>
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| − | The relationships among the three subfamilies Bambusoideae, Oryzoideae and Pooideae in the BOP clade have been resolved: Bambusoideae and Pooideae are more closely related to each other than to Oryzoideae.<ref name=Wu>{{cite journal|last1=Wu |first1=Z.Q. |last2=Ge |first2=S. |date=2012 |title=The phylogeny of the BEP clade in grasses revisited: Evidence from the whole-genome sequences of chloroplasts |journal=Molecular and Phylogenetic Evolution |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=573–578 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2011.10.019 }}</ref> This separation occurred within the relatively short time span of about 4 million years.
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| − | == Description ==
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| − | {{plain image|Grassy grass plant.svg|Diagram of a typical lawn grass plant.|300px|left|top|triangle|#43d050}}
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| − | Grasses may be [[annual plant|annual]] or [[perennial plant|perennial]] herbs,<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|10}} generally with the following characteristics (the image gallery can be used for reference):
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| − | The [[Plant stem|stems]] of grasses, called [[Culm (botany)|culms]], are usually cylindrical (more rarely flattened, but not 3-angled) and are hollow, plugged at the [[node (botany)|nodes]], where the leaves are attached.<ref name=BSBI13>{{cite book|first1=T.|last1=Cope|first2=A.|last2=Gray|title=Grasses of the British Isles|date=2009|publisher=[[Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland]]|location=London, U.K.|isbn=9780901158420 }}</ref><ref name=Clayton>{{cite book|first1=W.D.|last1=Clayton|first2=S.A.|last2=Renvoise|title=Genera Graminum: Grasses of the world|date=1986|publisher=Royal Botanic Garden, Kew|location=London|isbn=9781900347754 }}</ref> Grass [[Leaf|leaves]] are nearly always alternate and distichous (in one plane), and have parallel veins.<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|11}} Each leaf is differentiated into a lower sheath hugging the stem and a blade with entire (i.e., smooth) margins.<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|11}} The leaf blades of many grasses are hardened with [[silica]] [[phytolith]]s, which discourage grazing animals; some, such as [[Imperata cylindrica|sword grass]], are sharp enough to cut human skin. A membranous appendage or fringe of hairs called the [[ligule#Poaceae and Cyperaceae|ligule]] lies at the junction between sheath and blade, preventing water or insects from penetrating into the sheath.<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|11}}
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| − | [[Image:En Anatomia.png|Parts of a spikelet|thumb|300px|right]]
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| − | [[Flower]]s of Poaceae are characteristically arranged in spikelets, each having one or more florets.<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|12}} The spikelets are further grouped into [[Raceme|panicles or spikes]]. The part of the spikelet that bears the florets is called the rachilla. A spikelet consists of two (or sometimes fewer) [[bracts]] at the base, called [[glumes]], followed by one or more florets.<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|13}} A floret consists of the flower surrounded by two bracts, one external—the [[lemma (botany)|lemma]]—and one internal—the [[palea (botany)|palea]]. The flowers are usually [[hermaphroditic]]—[[maize]] being an important exception—and [[anemophily|anemophilous]] or wind-pollinated. The [[perianth]] is reduced to two scales, called ''[[lodicule]]s'',<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|11}} that expand and contract to spread the lemma and palea; these are generally interpreted to be modified sepals. This complex structure can be seen in the image on the right, portraying a [[wheat]] (''Triticum aestivum'') spikelet.
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| − | The [[fruit]] of grasses is a [[caryopsis]], in which the seed coat is fused to the fruit wall.<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|16}}
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| − | A [[Tiller (botany)|tiller]] is a leafy shoot other than the first shoot produced from the seed.<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|11}}
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| − | == Growth and development ==
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| − | [[File:Grassflowers.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Grass flowers]]
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| − | Grass blades grow at the base of the blade and not from elongated stem tips. This low growth point evolved in response to grazing animals and allows grasses to be [[grazing|grazed]] or [[lawnmower|mown]] regularly without severe damage to the plant.<ref name="Attenborough1984">{{cite book|title=[[The Living Planet]]|first=David |last=Attenborough|publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]|isbn=0-563-20207-6|year=1984|authorlink=David Attenborough}}</ref>{{rp|113–114}}
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| − | Three general classifications of growth habit present in grasses: bunch-type (also called caespitose), [[stolon]]iferous, and [[rhizome|rhizomatous]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
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| − | The success of the grasses lies in part in their morphology and growth processes and in part in their physiological diversity. Most of the grasses divide into two physiological groups, using the [[C3 carbon fixation|C3]] and [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] photosynthetic pathways for carbon fixation. The C4 grasses have a photosynthetic pathway, linked to specialized [[Kranz anatomy|Kranz]] leaf anatomy, which allows for increased [[water use efficiency]], rendering them better adapted to hot, arid environments and those lacking in [[carbon dioxide]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
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| − | The C3 grasses are referred to as "cool-season" grasses, while the C4 plants are considered "warm-season" grasses.<ref name=BSBI13/>{{rp|18–19}}
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| − | * Annual cool-season - [[wheat]], [[rye]], annual bluegrass (annual meadowgrass, ''[[Poa annua]]''), and [[oat]]
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| − | * Perennial cool-season - orchardgrass (cocksfoot, ''[[Dactylis glomerata]]''), fescue (''[[Festuca]]'' spp.), [[Kentucky bluegrass]] and perennial ryegrass (''[[Lolium perenne]]'')
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| − | * Annual warm-season - [[maize]], [[sudangrass]], and [[pearl millet]]
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| − | * Perennial warm-season - [[big bluestem]], [[Indiangrass]], [[Bermudagrass]] and [[switchgrass]].
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| − | == Distribution ==
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| − | The grass family is one of the most widely distributed and abundant groups of plants on [[Earth]]. Grasses are found on almost every continent,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sarandón|first=Ramiro|title=Biología poblacional del gramon (''Cynodon'' spp., Gramineae)|date=1988|pages=189|url=http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/4709|accessdate=22 April 2014}}</ref> and are absent only from [[Antarctica]].<ref name="Missouri Botanical Garden">{{cite web|url=http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welcome.html#Famlarge|title=Angiosperm phylogeny website|accessdate=2007-10-07}}</ref>
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| − | == Ecology ==
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| − | [[File:Kangur.rudy.drs.jpg|thumb|right|A [[kangaroo]] eating grass]]
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| − | [[File:Grasses in the Valles Caldera 2014-06-26.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Wind-blown grass in the [[Valles Caldera]] in [[New Mexico]]]]
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| − | Grasses are the [[Dominance (ecology)|dominant]] vegetation in many habitats, including [[grassland]], [[salt-marsh]], [[reedswamp]] and [[steppes]]. They also occur as a smaller part of the vegetation in almost every other terrestrial habitat.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
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| − | Grass-dominated [[biome]]s are called grasslands. If only large, contiguous areas of grasslands are counted, these biomes cover 31% of the planet's land.<ref name="Time life 20" /> Grasslands include [[pampas]], [[steppe]]s, and [[prairie]]s.
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| − | Grasses provide food to many grazing mammals—such as livestock, deer, and elephants—as well as to many [[List of Lepidoptera that feed on grasses|species]] of [[Butterfly|butterflies]] and [[moth]]s.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
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| − | Many types of animals eat grass as their main source of food, and are called ''[[graminivore]]s'' – these include [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[horse]]s, [[rabbit]]s and many [[invertebrate]]s, such as [[grasshopper]]s and the caterpillars of many [[Satyridae|brown butterflies]]. Grasses are also eaten by [[Omnivore|omnivorous]] or even occasionally by primarily [[Carnivore|carnivorous]] animals.
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| − | Grasses are unusual in that the [[meristem]] is located near the bottom of the plant; hence, they can quickly recover from cropping at the top.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.farmwest.com/book/export/html/828 |title=Chapter 1: How grasses grow |publisher=Farmwest.com |date= |accessdate=2013-08-26}}</ref>
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| − | The evolution of large grazing animals in the [[Cenozoic]] contributed to the spread of grasses. Without large grazers, fire-cleared areas are quickly colonized by grasses, and with enough rain, tree seedlings. Trees eventually outcompete most grasses. Trampling grazers kill seedling trees but not grasses.<ref name="Attenborough1984"/>{{rp|137}}
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| − | == Taxonomy ==
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| − | There are about 12,000 grass species in about 771 genera that are classified into 12 subfamilies.<ref name="SorengPeterson2015">{{cite journal |last1=Soreng |first1=Robert J. |last2=Peterson |first2=Paul M. |last3=Romschenko |first3=Konstantin |last4=Davidse |first4=Gerrit |last5=Zuloaga |first5=Fernando O. |last6=Judziewicz |first6=Emmet J. |last7=Filgueiras |first7=Tarciso S. |last8=Davis |first8=Jerrold I. |last9=Morrone |first9=Osvaldo |title=A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=53 |issue=2 |year=2015 |pages=117–137 |issn=1674-4918 |doi=10.1111/jse.12150}} {{open access}}</ref> See the full [[list of Poaceae genera]].
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| − | [[File:Setaria verticillata W IMG 1085.jpg|thumb|190px|''[[Setaria verticillata]]'' from [[Panicoideae]]]]
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| − | [[File:Tragus roxburghii W IMG 1725.jpg|thumb|190px |''[[Tragus roxburghii]]'' from [[Chloridoideae]]]]
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| − | * [[Anomochlooideae]] [[Robert Knud Friedrich Pilger|Pilg.]] ex [[Eva Hedwig Ingeborg Potztal|Potztal]], a small lineage of broad-leaved grasses that includes two genera (''Anomochloa'', ''Streptochaeta'')
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| − | * [[Pharoideae]] [[Lynn G. Clark|L.G.Clark]] & [[Emmet J. Judziewicz|Judz.]], a small lineage of grasses of three genera, including ''Pharus'' and ''Leptaspis''
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| − | * [[Puelioideae]] L.G.Clark, [[Mikio Kobayashi|M.Kobay.]], [[Sarah Mathews|S.Mathews]], [[Russell Edwin Spangler|Spangler]] & [[Elizabeth Anne Kellogg|E.A.Kellogg]], a small lineage of the African genus ''Puelia''
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| − | * [[Pooideae]], including [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s, brome-grass (''[[Bromus]]''), reed-grasses (''Calamagrostis'') and many lawn and pasture grasses
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| − | * [[Bambusoideae]], including [[bamboo]]
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| − | * [[Ehrhartoideae]], including [[rice]] and [[wild rice]]
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| − | * [[Aristideae|Aristidoideae]], including ''[[Aristida]]''
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| − | * [[Arundinoideae]], including [[giant reed]] and [[common reed]]
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| − | * [[Chloridoideae]], including the lovegrasses (''Eragrostis'', about 350 species, including [[teff]]), dropseeds (''Sporobolus'', some 160 species), [[finger millet]] (''Eleusine coracana'' (L.) Gaertn.), and the muhly grasses (''Muhlenbergia'', about 175 species)
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| − | * [[Panicoideae]], including [[panic grass]], [[maize]], [[sorghum]], [[sugarcane]], most [[millet]]s, [[fonio]], and [[bluestem grass]]es
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| − | * [[Micrairoideae]]
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| − | * [[Danthonieae|Danthonioideae]], including [[Cortaderia|pampas grass]]
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| − | == Uses ==
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| − | {{refimprove section|date=March 2016}}
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| − | Grasses are, in human terms, perhaps the most economically important plant family. Their economic importance stems from several areas, including food production, industry, and [[lawn]]s. They have been grown as food for [[domesticated animals]] for up to 6,000 years and the grains of grasses such as [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[maize]] (corn) and [[barley]] have been the most important human [[food crop]]s. Grasses are also used in the manufacture of [[thatching|thatch]], [[paper]], [[fuel]], [[clothing]], [[Building insulation|insulation]], timber for [[fence|fencing]], [[furniture]], [[scaffolding]] and [[construction]] materials, floor [[matting]], [[#Sports turf|sports turf]] and [[basket weaving|baskets]].
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| − | {{wide image|GrazingCowsPasture.jpg|1500px|Grazing cattle on a pasture near [[Hradec nad Moravicí]] in [[Czech Silesia]].}}
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| − | === Food production ===
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| − | Agricultural grasses grown for their edible seeds are called [[cereal]]s or grains (although the latter term, agriculturally, refers to both cereals and [[legumes]]). Three cereals – [[rice]], [[wheat]], and [[maize]] (corn) – provide more than half of all calories eaten by humans.<ref name="Raven and Johnson">{{cite book|title=Understanding Biology|edition=3rd|first1=P.H. |last1=Raven |first2=G.B. |last2=Johnson |page=536|isbn=0-697-22213-6|year=1995|editor=Carol J. Mills|publisher=WM C. Brown}}</ref> Of all crops, 70% are grasses.<ref name="Time life 19">{{cite book|title=Grasslands and Tundra|publisher=Time Life Books|year=1985|series=Planet Earth|editor=George Constable|isbn=0-8094-4520-4|page=19}}</ref> Cereals constitute the major source of [[carbohydrate]]s for humans and perhaps the major source of protein, and include rice in [[Southern Asia|southern]] and [[eastern Asia]], maize in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], and wheat and [[barley]] in [[Europe]], [[northern Asia]] and the [[Americas]].
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| − |
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| − | [[Sugarcane]] is the major source of [[sugar]] production. Additional food uses include [[sprouting|sprouted grain]],
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| − | [[shoot]]s, [[rhizome]]s and [[sugar]]), drink ([[sugarcane juice]], [[plant milk]], [[rum]], [[beer]], [[whisky]], [[Żubrówka|vodka]]).
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| − |
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| − | [[Lemongrass]] is used as a culinary herb for its scent.
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| − |
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| − | Many species of grasses are grown as [[pasture]] for forage and [[fodder]] for [[livestock]], particularly for [[sheep]] and [[cattle]]. They may be cut and stored in the form of [[hay]], [[straw]] or [[silage]] for use during the winter. Hay and straw are used for animal bedding.
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| − |
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| − | === Industry ===
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| − | Grasses are used as raw material for a multitude of purposes, including construction and in the composition of building materials such as [[cob (material)|cob]], for insulation, in the manufacture of paper and board such as [[Oriented structural straw board]]. Grass [[fiber]] can be used for making [[Esparto#Esparto paper|paper]], and for [[biofuel]] production.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}[[Bamboo scaffolding]] is able to withstand typhoon-force winds that would break steel scaffolding.<ref name="Time life 20">{{cite book|title=Grasslands and Tundra|publisher=Time Life Books|year=1985|series=Planet Earth|editor=George Constable|isbn=0-8094-4520-4|page=20}}</ref> Larger bamboos and ''[[Arundo donax]]'' have stout culms that can be used in a manner similar to timber, ''Arundo'' is used to make reeds for [[woodwind instrument]]s, and bamboo is used for innumerable implements.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
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| − |
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| − | ''[[Phragmites|''Phragmites australis'']]'' (common reed) is important for [[thatching]] and grass roots stabilize the sod of [[sod house]]s.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} Reeds are used in [[water treatment]] systems, in [[wetland conservation]] and [[land reclamation]] in [[Afro-Eurasia]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} Marram grass (''Ammophila arenaria'')
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| − |
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| − | === Lawn and ornamental use ===
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| − | {{Main article|Lawn}}
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| − | [[File:South Lawn.jpg|thumb|A lawn in front of a building]]
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| − | Grasses are the primary plant used in [[lawn]]s, which themselves derive from grazed [[grassland]]s in Europe.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} They also provide an important means of erosion control (e.g., along roadsides), especially on sloping land.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} Grass lawns are an important covering of playing surfaces in many sports, including [[football (soccer)]], [[American football]], [[tennis]], [[golf]], [[cricket]], [[softball]] and [[baseball]].
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| − |
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| − | [[Ornamental grass]]es, such as [[perennial]] [[bunch grass]]es, are used in many styles of [[garden design]] for their foliage, inflorescences, seed heads. They are often used in [[natural landscaping]], [[xeriscaping]] and slope stabilization in contemporary landscaping, [[wildlife garden]]ing, and [[native plant gardening]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
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| − |
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| − | === Sports turf ===
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| − | {{see also|Turf management|Sand-based athletic fields}}
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| − | [[File:Citi Field Day.jpg|thumb|left|Forms of grass are used to cover baseball fields, like this one in [[Citi Field]], home of the [[New York Mets|Mets]].]]
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| − | Grass playing fields, courses and pitches are the traditional playing surfaces for many [[sports]], including [[American football]], [[association football]], [[baseball]], [[cricket]], [[golf]], and [[Rugby football|rugby]]. Grass surfaces are also sometimes used for [[horse racing]] and [[tennis]]. Type of maintenance and species of grass used may be important factors for some sports, less critical for others. In some sports facilities, including indoor domes and other places where maintenance of a grass field would be difficult, grass may be replaced with [[artificial turf]], a synthetic grass-like substitute.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
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| − |
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| − | ==== Cricket ====
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| − | [[File:Australia vs India.jpg|thumb|The gray area is the '''[[cricket]]''' pitch currently in use. Parallel to it are other pitches in various states of preparation which could be used in other matches.]]
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| − | {{main article|Cricket pitch#Preparation and maintenance of the playing area}}
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| − | In cricket, the pitch is the strip of carefully mowed and rolled grass where the bowler bowls. In the days leading up to the match it is repeatedly mowed and rolled to produce a very hard, flat surface for the ball to bounce off.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tainton|first1=Neil|last2=van Deventer|first2=Pietr|title=Cricket pitches Principles and practice of pitch preparation|url=http://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ABOUT_CRICKET/PITCHES/PREP_OF_PITCHES.html#ANCHOR2|website=cricinfo}}</ref>
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| − |
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| − | ==== Golf ====
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| − | {{main article|Golf course}}
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| − | Grass on golf courses is kept in three distinct conditions: that of the ''rough'', the ''fairway'', and the ''putting green''. Grass on the fairway is mown short and even, allowing the player to strike the ball cleanly. Playing from the rough is a disadvantage because the long grass may affect the flight of the ball. Grass on the putting green is the shortest and most even, ideally allowing the ball to roll smoothly over the surface. An entire industry revolves around the development and marketing of grass varieties for golf courses.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
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| − |
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| − | ==== Tennis ====
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| − | {{main article|Grass court}}
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| − | In tennis, grass is grown on very hard-packed soil, and the bounce of a [[tennis ball]] may vary depending on the grass's health, how recently it has been mowed, and the wear and tear of recent play.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} The surface is softer than [[hard courts]] and [[Clay court|clay]] (other tennis surfaces), so the ball bounces lower, and players must reach the ball faster resulting in a different style of play which may suit some players more than others.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} Among the world's most prestigious court for grass tennis is Centre Court at [[Wimbledon, London]] which hosts the final of the annual [[Wimbledon Championships]] in England, one of the four [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] tournaments.
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| − |
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| − | === Economically important grasses ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="24"
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| − | |- valign=top
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| − | |
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| − | ;[[Grain|Grain crops]]
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| − | * [[Barley]]
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| − | * [[Maize]] (corn)
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| − | * [[Oat]]s
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| − | * [[Rice]]
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| − | * [[Rye]]
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| − | * [[Sorghum]]
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| − | * [[Wheat]]
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| − | * [[Millet]]
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| − | |
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| − | ;Leaf and stem crops
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| − | * [[Bamboo]]
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| − | * [[Marram grass]]
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| − | * [[Poa|Meadow-grass]]
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| − | * [[Phragmites|Reeds]]
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| − | * [[Ryegrass]]
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| − | * [[Sugarcane]]
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| − | |
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| − | ;[[Lawn|Lawn grasses]]
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| − | * [[Bahia grass]]
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| − | * [[Agrostis|Bent grass]]
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| − | * [[Cynodon|Bermuda grass]]
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| − | * [[Buffalograss]]
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| − | * [[Centipede grass]]
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| − | * [[Festuca|Fescue]]
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| − | * Meadow-grass
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| − | * Ryegrass
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| − | * [[St. Augustine grass]]
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| − | * [[Zoysia]]
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| − | |
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| − | ;[[Ornamental grass]]es ([[Horticulture|Horticultural]])
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| − | * ''[[Calamagrostis]]'' spp.
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| − | * ''[[Cortaderia]]'' spp.
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| − | * ''[[Deschampsia]]'' spp.
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| − | * ''[[Festuca]]'' spp.
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| − | * ''[[Melica]]'' spp.
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| − | * ''[[Muhlenbergia]]'' spp.
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| − | * ''[[Stipa]]'' spp.
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| − | |
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| − | ;[[Model organism]]s
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| − | * ''[[Brachypodium distachyon]]''
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| − | * Maize (corn)
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| − | * Rice
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| − | * Sorghum
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| − | * Wheat
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| − | |}
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| − |
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| − | == Role in society ==
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| − | [[Image:Grass covered house in Iceland 1972.jpg|thumb|Grass-covered house in [[Iceland]]]]
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| − | Grasses have long had significance in human society. They have been cultivated as feed for people and [[domesticated animals]] for thousands of years. The primary ingredient of [[beer]] is usually barley or wheat, both of which have been used for this purpose for over 4,000 years.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}
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| − |
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| − | In some places, particularly in [[suburb]]an areas, the maintenance of a grass lawn is a sign of a homeowner's responsibility to the overall appearance of their neighborhood. One work credits lawn maintenance to:
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| − | {{quote|...the desire for upward mobility and its manifestation in the lawn. As Virginia Jenkins, author of ''The Lawn'', put it quite bluntly, 'Upper middle-class Americans emulated aristocratic society with their own small, semi-rural estates.' In general, the lawn was one of the primary selling points of these new suburban homes, as it shifted social class designations from the equity and ubiquity of urban homes connected to the streets with the upper-middle class designation of a "healthy" green space and the status symbol that is the front lawn.<ref>Matthew J. Lindstrom, Hugh Bartling, ''Suburban sprawl: culture, theory, and politics'' (2003), p. 72, quoting Virginia Scott Jenkins, ''The Lawn: A History of an American Obsession'' (1994), p.21.</ref><ref>Paul Robbins and Julie T. Sharp, "Producing and Consuming Chemicals: The Moral Economy of the American Lawn", ''Economic Geography'' '''79''':4 (2003), p. 425-45; reprinted in William G. Moseley, David A. Lanegran, Kavita Pandit, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nTnImTKlJIgC&pg=PA323&dq=%22Producing+and+Consuming+Chemicals:+The+Moral+Economy+of+the+American+Lawn%22 The Introductory Reader in Human Geography]'' (2007), p. 323-36.</ref>}}
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| − |
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| − | Many US municipalities and homeowners' associations have rules which require lawns to be maintained to certain specifications, sanctioning those who allow the grass to grow too long. In communities with [[drought]] problems, watering of lawns may be [[outdoor water-use restriction|restricted]] to certain times of day or days of the week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metrovancouver.org/services/water/conservation/Pages/sprinkling.aspx |title=Lawn Sprinkling Regulations in Metro Vancouver, BC, Canada |publisher=Metrovancouver.org |date=2011-02-21 |accessdate=2013-08-26}}</ref>
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| − | The smell of the freshly cut grass is produced mainly by [[cis-3-Hexenal]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/hexenal/hexenalh.htm |title=hexenal|publisher=School of Chemistry, University of Bristol|date= |accessdate=2013-08-26}}</ref>
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| − | Some common [[aphorism]]s involve grass. For example:
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| − | * "The grass is always greener on the other side" suggests an alternate state of affairs will always seem preferable to one's own.
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| − | * "Don't let the grass grow under your feet" tells someone to get moving.
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| − | * "A [[snake]] in the grass" means dangers that are hidden.
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| − | * "When [[elephant]]s fight, it is the grass which suffers" tells of bystanders caught in the crossfire.
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| − | A folk myth about grass is that it refuses to grow where any violent death has occurred.<ref>Olmert, Michael (1996). ''Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History'', p. 208. Simon & Schuster, New York. {{ISBN|0-684-80164-7}}.</ref>
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| − |
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| − | == In popular culture ==
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| − | *In [[Samuel Youd|John Christopher]]'s ''[[The Death of Grass]]'' (1956, published in the United States as ''No Blade of Grass''), a plague that kills off all forms of grass threatens the survival of the human species.
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| − | *In [[Ward Moore]]'s novel ''[[Greener Than You Think]]'', the world is slowly taken over by unstoppable [[Bermuda Grass]].
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| − | *[[Alice Munro]]'s story "[[List of short stories by Alice Munro|Save the Reaper]]" (1998) contains an important allusion to the idiomatic saying, "To hear the grass grow"; the aging protagonist remembers her grandfather's telling her when she was young that "at night you could hear the corn growing" in the region where the story is set.<ref>For publication details of "Save the Reaper" by Alice Munro see [[List of short stories by Alice Munro]].</ref> The protagonist hears the grass grow in ways that are central to the story's significance on the topic of retelling, or rather, in an act of [[self-censorship]], of leaving untold certain experiences of the recent past.<ref>{{cite news|author=Miller, Judith Maclean |title= Deconstructing Silence: The Mystery of Alice Munro|work=Antigonish Review|number=129 |date=Spring 2002|pages=43–52}}</ref>
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| − | *The title of [[Walt Whitman]]'s poetry collection ''[[Leaves of Grass]]'' (1855) contains two puns: "leaves", referring to the pages on which the book was written, and "grass", a term given by publishers to works of minor value.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
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| − |
| |
| − | == Image gallery ==
| |
| − | <gallery>
| |
| − | Image:Ruwbeemdgras_Poa_trivialis_ligula.jpg|Leaves of ''[[Poa trivialis]]'' showing the ligules
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| − | Image:Bamboo_DSCN2465.jpg|Bamboo stem and leaves, nodes are evident
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| − | Image:Chasmanthium latifolium-spikelet.jpg|A ''[[Chasmanthium latifolium]]'' spikelet
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| − | Image:En_Spica_spiculae.png|Wheat spike and spikelet
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| − | Image:En_Aperta.png|Spikelet opened to show caryopsis
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| − | Image:Harestail grass.jpg|Harestail grass
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| − | Image:Grass.jpg|Grass
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| − | Image:Saccharum-officinarum2.JPG|Sugarcane (''[[Saccharum officinarum]]'')
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| − | Image:Bromus_hordeaceus_unten.jpeg|Roots of ''[[Bromus hordeaceus]]''
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| − | Image:Ohra.jpg|Barley mature spikes (''[[Hordeum vulgare]]'')
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| − | Image:Koeh-283.jpg|Illustration depicting both staminate and pistillate flowers of maize (''[[Zea mays]]'')
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| − | Image:Flowering Grass.JPG|A grass flower head (meadow foxtail) showing the plain-coloured flowers with large anthers.
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| − | Image:Grass Anthers.JPG|Anthers detached from a meadow foxtail flower
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| − | File:Setaria verticillata W IMG 1084.jpg|''[[Setaria verticillata]]'', bristly foxtail
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| − | File:Setaria verticillata W IMG 1083.jpg|''[[Setaria verticillata]]'', bristly foxtail
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| − | File:Oryza sativa in Kadavoor.jpg|''[[Oryza sativa]]'', [[Kerala]], [[India]]
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| − | </gallery>
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| − |
| |
| − | == See also ==
| |
| − | * [[Agrostology]]
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| − | * [[Bunch grass]]
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| − | * [[Forbs]]
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| − | * [[Ornamental grass]]
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| − | * [[Cyperaceae|Sedges]]
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| − | * [[Juncaceae|Rushes]]
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| − | * [[PACMAD clade]]
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| | | | |
| | == References == | | == References == |
| | {{Reflist|30em}} | | {{Reflist|30em}} |
| | | | |
| − | == External links ==
| + | {{Ack-Wikipedia}} |
| − | {{Commons category}} | |
| − | {{Wikispecies}}
| |
| − | {{commons|Grass}}
| |
| − | *{{Wiktionary-inline|grass}}
| |
| − | * [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/grass Need a Definition of Grass?]
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| − | * [http://www.brerc.eclipse.co.uk/files/brerc_grass_key.pdf Vegetative Key to Grasses]
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| − | * [http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/A/Poaceae/ Poaceae] at [http://www.theplantlist.org/ ''The Plant List'']
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| − | * [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/graminea.htm Gramineae] at [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ ''The Families of Flowering Plants (DELTA)'']
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| − | * [http://eol.org/pages/8223/overview Poaceae] at the [http://eol.org/ ''Encyclopedia of Life'']
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| − | * [http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/orders/poalesweb.htm#Poaceae Poaceae] at the [http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/ ''Angiosperm Phylogeny Website'']
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| − | * [http://www.tropicos.org/projectwebportal.aspx?pagename=ClassificationNWG&projectid=10 ''Poaceae Classification''] from the online [http://www.tropicos.org/Project/CNWG ''Catalogue of New World Grasses'']
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| − | * [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=10711 Poaceae] at the online [http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2 ''Flora of China'']
| |
| − | * [http://greif.uni-greifswald.de/floragreif/?flora_search=Taxon&action=genus&fam=Poaceae Poaceae] at the online [http://greif.uni-greifswald.de/floragreif/ ''Guide to the Flora of Mongolia'']
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| − | * [http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1050 Poaceae] at the online [http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=100 ''Flora of Taiwan'']
| |
| − | * [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=10711 Poaceae] at the online [http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=5 ''Flora of Pakistan'']
| |
| − | * [http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/family.php?family_id=177 Poaceae] at the online [http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/index.php ''Flora of Zimbabwe'']
| |
| − | * [http://florabase.dec.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/22751 Poaceae] at the online [http://florabase.dec.wa.gov.au/ ''Flora of Western Australia'']
| |
| − | * Grasses of Australia (AusGrass2) - http://ausgrass2.myspecies.info/
| |
| − | * [http://floraseries.landcareresearch.co.nz/pages/Taxa.aspx?id=_8ae81d6d-1dca-418b-8bcf-4b6e1e5a2f6d&fileName=Flora%205.xml Gramineae] at the online [http://floraseries.landcareresearch.co.nz/pages/index.aspx ''Flora of New Zealand'']
| |
| − | * [http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/biosystematics/plants/grasskey/ NZ Grass Key] An Interactive Key to New Zealand Grasses at [http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/ ''Landcare Research'']
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| − | * [http://delta-intkey.com/grass/ The Grass Genera of the World] at [http://delta-intkey.com/ ''DELTA intkey'']
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| − | * [http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/data/grasses-db/sppindex.htm GrassBase - The Online World Grass Flora] at the [http://www.kew.org/ ''Royal Botanic Gardens - Kew'']
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| − | * GrassWorld - http://grassworld.myspecies.info/
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| − | | |
| − | {{Portal bar|Plants}}
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| − | {{Cereals}}
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| − | {{Poaceae-subfamilies}}
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| − | {{taxonbar}}
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| − | {{Authority control}}
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| − | | |
| − | [[Category:Poales families]]
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| − | [[Category:Poaceae| ]]
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| − | [[Category:Grasses| ]]
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| − | [[Category:Grasslands]]
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| − | [[Category:Plant life-form]]
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| − | [[Category:Plants by habit]]
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| − | [[Category:Plant common names]]
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| − | [[Category:Extant Maastrichtian first appearances]]
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