|
|
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| − | {{italic title}}{{Taxobox
| + | {{Taxobox |
| | | name = | | | name = |
| | | image = Pachyrhizus ahipa seeds.jpg | | | image = Pachyrhizus ahipa seeds.jpg |
| Line 20: |
Line 20: |
| | ''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' var. ''violacea'' {{au|Parodi}} | | ''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' var. ''violacea'' {{au|Parodi}} |
| | }} | | }} |
| − | '''''Pachyrhizus ahipa''''', also called the '''ahipa''' or '''Andean yam bean''', is a tuberous root-producing legume, which is mainly distributed in the Andean region.<ref name="Sorensen">Sørensen, M., Gruneberg, W. J., Ørting, B., 1997. Ahipa (''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' (Wedd.) Parodi). In Andean roots and tubers: ahipa, arracacha, maca and yacon. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops (M. Herman & J. Heller, eds.). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, p. 13-73.</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | == History ==
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Archaeological evidence suggests ''P. ahipa'' was widely distributed about 2000 years ago.<ref name="Lost">Popenoe, H., King, S.R., Léon, J., Kalinkowski, L.S., Vietmeyer, N.D., Dafforn, M., 1989. Lost crops of the Incas. Little known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation. National Academy Press, Washington, p. 37-46</ref> The first mention of ahipa was in connection with the Indian cultures in the Andes, more precisely in the [[Salta Province|Salta]] and [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]] provinces of Argentina.<ref name="Orting">Ørting, B., Grüneberg, J., Sørensen, M., 1996. Ahipa (''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' (Wedd.) Parodi) in Bolivia. Genetic Ressources and Crop Evolution, 43, p. 435-446</ref> Indications of the ''Pachyrhizus'' species in general were also made at the southern coast of [[Peru]], in the Nasca culture.<ref name="Sorensen" /> The origin of the ahipa plants is most likely in the ''ceja de montañas'' Andean region.<ref name="Orting" />
| |
| − | Today, it is still in use in small native communities in [[Bolivia]] and northern [[Argentina]]. The crop was never widely distributed which could have to do with the very specific climatic adaptions it exhibits. Another reason could be the acquisition of Latin America by the Spanish and Portuguese conquest, which had the general policy to destroy the traditional Andean agricultural systems.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − | The local marketing of the Andean bean during the religious festival ''Corpus Cristi'' indicates a relationship with ancient religious uses. Today, the production is restricted to a few local villages and farmers.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | == Description ==
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' is member of the [[Fabaceae]] and predominantly [[self-pollinating]].<ref name="roots">Leonel, M., Bortolucci Ferrari, T., Bruder, S., Sarmento, S., Alvares de Oliveira, M., 2005. Planting time, developmental stages and characteristics of roots and starch of Pachyrhizus ahipa. Scienta Agricola, 62</ref> The Andean bean is a [[perennial]] plant and can grow in erect, semierect or twining forms.<ref name="Sorensen" /> The erect species can grow to 15–40 cm tall, the semierect one about 30–60 cm, and the twining forms 60–200 cm long.<ref name="Orting" /> These plants are herbaceous and lignified depending on the genotype. They do not show a lateral axis.<ref name="Sorensen" /> The leaves are trifoliate with stipules or pinnately arranged leaflets with caduceus stipels.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The flowers, which grow on short stalks, are white blossoms or of a pale lavender colour. They show a tubular calyx and a papilionaceous corolla.<ref name="Sorensen" /> Generally, the flowers exhibit an internally curved [[stigma (botany)|stigma]] in close contact with the [[anthers]]. This habitus is very unfavourable in connection with the [[pollination]] behaviour of insects, as they are not able to pollinate the flowers very effectively. Additionally, the pollen fertility is often not very high. It varies between 45 and 100%. The flowering pattern is not consistent. Each season, 100 – 800 flowers per plant can be produced. ''P. ahipa'' is a [[short-day plant]], so flowering takes place under decreasing day length.<ref name="Sorensen" /> The [[Glossary of plant morphology terms#Fruit types|pods]] are 13–17 cm long and up to 16 mm wide.<ref name="Sorensen" /> The seeds are black, lilac, maroon, or black and white mottled.<ref name="Sorensen" /> They are round, kidney-shaped, and about 0.8–1 cm long. Seed production differs from plant to plant and lies between 20 and 100 per plant. The thousand grain weight is around 300 g.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Every plant shows a single swollen root, which thins out toward both ends. The roots are about 15 cm long and usually weight about 500-800 g. The yellow skin of the root encloses a white pulp, which is interwoven with a soft fiber.<ref name="Orting" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ==Culture==
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Sowing ===
| |
| − | Before sowing, the soil must be loosened to a depth of 15–25 cm. Further, the soil has to be thoroughly cleaned from weeds and stones. In Bolivia, ''P. ahipa'' is normally sown between August and October, depending on the rainy season. The seeding rate is between 40 and 65 kg/ha. In determining the rate, preferred traits such as tuber size play an important role. Further, [[soil fertility]] and seed weight must be taken into account. The planting distance is 20–60 cm between rows and 6–25 cm between plants in the same row. Therefore, about six to 83 plants/m<sup>2</sup> are possible. It is planted on [[ridges]], when it is flood irrigated, which is mostly the case in the Andean region.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Cultivation ===
| |
| − | The cultivation period is between five and 10 months. The first flowers appear 87–140 days after sowing. Those flowers are removed manually, a process called reproductive pruning. This means the flowers, as well as the young pods, are removed. The tuberous roots remain the main sink for photosynthates and nutrients. The yield improves drastically.<ref name="Sorensen" /> Reproductive pruning is very labour-intensive and must be done once or twice a season.<ref name="Factors">Leidi, E.O., Rodríguez-Navarro, D.N., Fernández, M., Sarmiento, R., Semedo, J., Marques, N., Matos, A., Machado, A.P., Ørting, B, Sørensen, M., Matos, M.C., 2004. Factors affecting root and seed yield in ahipa (Pachyrhizus ahipa (Wedd.) Parodi), a multipurpose legume crop. European Journal of Agronomy, 20, p. 395-403</ref> Mature pods normally appear from April through June. At about nine months, the roots are tuberized and the aerial part is completely dry.
| |
| − | ''P. ahipa'' is normally sown in a pure culture, but can be intercropped with maize. In a crop rotation, it is sown prior to [[maize]]/[[potato]], maize/[[tomato]], maize/[[oxalis tuberosa|oca]], [[Bambara groundnut|groundnut]] or [[manioc]].<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Environmental conditions ===
| |
| − | ''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' can mainly be found in cool tropical and subtropical valleys, on sun-facing slopes, on the border between the warm and cold [[tropics]]. The average temperature in this region is 16-18 °C, although the climatic conditions are extremely dependent on the time of day. The precipitation is between 400 and 700 mm, occurring within 4–6 months, with the rest being the dry season. Therefore, the climate is [[semiarid]]. ''P. ahipa'' grows to an elevation of 1800 – 3000 m above sea level. Cultivation is mainly carried out along loamy riverbanks. It can also be grown on loamy hillsides. It favours soil pH levels of 6-8 and well-drained soil types.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' plants can tolerate long dry spells. Anyway, to increase tuber yield, an additional water supply is essential.<ref name="Orting" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Nutrient needs ===
| |
| − | At the time of harvest, seeds show high [[nitrogen]] contents, but some remains in leaves, providing a nitrogen-rich straw which can be used for animal feeding or as [[fertilizer]], if the plant material is incorporated into the soil. In one season, 67 kg N/ha were taken up by roots and seeds. This nitrogen is mainly provided by the [[inoculation]] with efficient bacterial strains. The ''P. ahipa'' plant is therefore able to form an efficient [[symbiosis]] with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as ''[[Rhizobium]]'' and ''[[Bradyrhizobium]]'', and is able to fix 58–80 kg nitrogen per hectare. No further supply of nitrogen fertilizer is needed.<ref name="Sorensen" /> If the vegetative aboveground parts are left in the field, a substantial amount of the fixed nitrogen is returned to the soil, about 12–80 kg N/ha. The enrichment is very important if a sustainable land-use system is desired.
| |
| − | During nodulation, an increased [[phosphorus]] supply is advantageous, because nodulation can be improved. Further, it promotes the root and seed yield in ''P. ahipa'' plants. The final recipients of P are the pod shells, as well as the seeds. In total, about 7-9.6 kg P/ha were extracted from the soil.
| |
| − | At harvest, the highest [[potassium]] contents can be found in pod shells and the roots. The removal of K at harvest was about 20.2 kg K/ha.<ref name="Nutrient">Leidi, E.O., Vidueira, J.M., Cobo, J., de Castro, A., Rodríguez-Navarro, D.N., 2004. Nutrient Requirements of Ahipa, Tuberous-Root Crop. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 27, p. 931-945</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Disease ===
| |
| − | ''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' plants are not very susceptible to pests. [[Nematode]]s such as ''[[Meloidogyne]]'' sp. can pose a serious problem. Further, some of the bean weevil species can be harmful. The most serious viral disease is the bean common mosaic virus (BCMV). Yields can be reduced up to 30% if infected by this virus. If a general irrigation management is lacking, rot is also likely to appear.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Harvest ===
| |
| − | The tubers of ''P. ahipa'' are harvested as soon as the tubers show a marketable weight, depending on consumer’s preferences. Mostly the preferred weight is minimally about 0.4 kg. [[Harvest]] duration lasts between 10 and 30 days. The vegetative top is often left on the field to later incorporate it into the fields. If the tubers are not needed at the moment, they can even be left in the soil until needed.<ref name="Sorensen" /> Only the plant tops have to be cut off. The yields of the different organs are about 28-53 tonnes/ha for the tuberous roots, 18-36 tonnes/ha for the fruits, and 1.3-2.7 tonnes/ha for the dry seeds.<ref name="sustainable" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === After harvest ===
| |
| − | The optimal storage temperature for tubers is 12.5 to 17.5 °C. Storage, though, changes the ratio of starch and sugar in the direction of sweeter tubers. This characteristic is valued by most consumers. Some farmers leave their tubers in a sunny place before marketing them.
| |
| − | Due to a high moisture content, the tubers may shrivel and lose condition during storage and [[transportation]]. Another solution to shrivelling could be a thicker epidermis.<ref name="Lost"/>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | It is important to avoid a damage to the tubers while harvesting. If damaged, they are susceptible to attacks by [[fungi]], mainly by ''Rhizobus stolonifer'', ''Cladosporium'' sp., and ''Penicillium'' sp. An attack of one of those fungi leads to textural changes, decay, and internal browning when stored at low temperatures and high relative humidity (>80%).
| |
| − | Seed storage is problematic. Under humid conditions, germination rapidly decreases. This is challenging, because the climate in tropics is very humid in the rainy season.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Commercial aspects ===
| |
| − | Its sometimes dwarf-like habit makes ''P. ahipa'' well suited for large-scale commercial cultivation. No international trade in ''P. ahipa'' occurs.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | == Nutrition ==
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Roots ===
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The carbohydrate-rich roots can be eaten raw and provide calories and [[vitamin K]] and [[vitamin C]], as well as potassium.<ref name="sustainable">Leidi, E.O., Sarmiento, R., Rodríguez-Navarro, D.N., 2003. Ahipa (''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' [Wedd.] Parodi): an alternative legume crop for sustainable production of starch, oil and protein. Industrial crops and products, an international journal, 17, p. 27-37</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Doporto|first=María Cecilia|title=Aprovechamiento integral de raíces de ahipa (Pachyrhizus ahipa) y sus productos derivados con fines alimentarios|date=26 March 2014|pages=369|url=http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/34924|accessdate=25 April 2014|language=Spanish}}</ref> Normally, it is eaten fresh, almost like a fruit. In some raw cases, it is also prepared as a juice. The roots taste sweet and are crisp like an apple and are an attractive addition to green salads. They can be boiled and even after cooking, they retain their crunchy texture. Ahipa tubers are even considered to have a cleansing effect on the body. It is supposed to cure infections of the throat and the air passage.<ref name="Sorensen" /> Its dry matter ranges from 15-30%.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Further, the tuber contains 48-54% [[starch]], which consists of 96-99.9% [[amylopectin]]. This is a very high value and especially interesting for food processing, where low solubilisation and [[retrogradation]] are important. Because of the high starch and amylopectin content, ahipa is a good material for the starch industry.<ref name="Sorensen" /> Further, the suitability of the Andean bean depends on other factors such as extractability of the starch, the diameter of the starch granules or particles and their distribution. After nine months, the starch granules are very homogenously distributed in the tuber. There is a high percentage of granules, which show the same size of about 12-18 μm diameter.<ref name="roots" /> This indicates that the tuber growth is completed.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − | ''P. ahipa'' can produce 19-28% [[sugar]]s in its root.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The [[protein]] content lies between 8 and 18%. The European market is economically highly interested in the protein content, mostly as feed for cattle. Protein content also may be interesting for the food industry, because about 80% of the protein is water-soluble and not extractable within a pH range of 2-10.<ref name="Sorensen" /> The [[lipid]] content is very low, below 1%.<ref name="Sorensen" /> Altogether, the tuber shows a very good nutritional composition. However, because the tuber contains a lot of water, the protein and energy concentration may be rated as being medium.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Seeds ===
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The seeds of the Andean bean contain high protein concentrations. As an adaption to insect predators, ahipa plants accumulate [[canavanine]] in its seeds. This is highly toxic to some insects and can pose a big problem in livestock foraging, especially if the ahipa plants escaped into the wild vegetation. The oil of the seeds has special properties such as high [[palmitic acid]] and γ-tocopherol concentrations, as well as few [[linolenic acid]]s. These aspects are of interest in the food industry.<ref name="sustainable" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | == Breeding ==
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Several breeding goals are important in ''P. ahipa'', apart from it being used as a vegetable crop, a basic food crop, or a possible industrial crop. Those traits are mainly the reduction of the growth period and a reduced pod formation. This is especially important, if reproductive pruning could be avoided, saving time and money could be saved.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' plants must be propagated sexually, because the reproductive rate by [[cloning]] from tubers is very low. [[Plant propagation|Propagation]] by seed is very advantageous, because transmission of [[virus]]es can be avoided and the storage of the propagation material is inexpensive.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Several interspecific hybridization experiments have been conducted among all the ''Pachyrhizus'' species. The traits of the Andean bean, of most interest are tuber quality, growth habit, and early maturity. The results of the breeding between the different species showed especially good performing hybrid lines with regard to high tuber yield as well as wide adaptability. Nevertheless, negative secondary effects, such as reduced seed set and reduced germination rates, have been observed.<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | == Prospects ==
| |
| − | ''Pachyrhizus ahipa'' should be used by a wider range of farmers for several reasons:
| |
| − | * It shows a very good adaptability to climatic and edaphic ranges
| |
| − | * The nutrients protein and starch are very well balanced, additionally, the taste is good
| |
| − | * It shows good postharvest and storage characteristics
| |
| − | * Nitrogen fixation, demand as fuel wood, and food production are favourable for the environment<ref name="Sorensen" />
| |
| | | | |
| | == References == | | == References == |
| | {{Reflist}} | | {{Reflist}} |
| | | | |
| − | {{Taxonbar|from=Q492080}}
| + | [[Category:Fabaceae]] |
| − | | + | [[Category:Plants for Keenan to eat]] |
| − | [[Category:Phaseoleae]] | |
| − | [[Category:Root vegetables]] | |
