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| − | '''''Plantago major''''' ('''broadleaf plantain''', '''white man's foot''', or '''greater plantain''') is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the plantain family [[Plantaginaceae]]. The plant is native to most of [[Europe]] and northern and central [[Asia]],<ref name=nhm>Natural History Museum: [http://internt.nhm.ac.uk/jobj/java/runjava.jobj?java=ctol.CTOLServer&method=printNamePage&accountref=987&NAMEID=8213 ''Plantago major'']</ref><ref name=flora>''Flora Europaea'': [http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Plantago&SPECIES_XREF=major&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK= ''Plantago major'']</ref><ref name=pakistan>''Flora of Pakistan'': [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=200022050 ''Plantago major'']</ref> but has widely [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] elsewhere in the world.<ref name=nhm/><ref name=grin>{{GRIN | accessdate = 16 December 2017}}</ref><ref>As a result, ''Plantago major'' has many common names. In addition to "broadleaf plantain" and "greater plantain", other common names include: common plantain, broad-leaved plantain, cart track plant, dooryard plantain, greater plantago, healing blade, hen plant, lambs foot, roadweed, roundleaf plantain, snakeroot, waybread, wayside plantain, and white man's foot prints. -- {{cite book |last= Britton|first= Nathaniel Lord| authorlink= Nathaniel Lord Britton|author2=Addison Brown |title=An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada, Volume 3|edition= second|year= 1913|publisher= Dover Publications, inc.|page=245}}</ref><ref name=jncc>Joint Nature Conservation Committee: [http://www.jncc.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=3316&SpeciesID=26533&type=species Greater Plantain ''Plantago major'' Linnaeus]</ref><ref name=bsbi>Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland [http://www.bsbi.org.uk/html/database.html Database] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808051058/http://bsbi.org.uk/html/database.html |date=2007-08-08 }}</ref> | + | '''''Plantago major''''' ('''broadleaf plantain''', '''white man's foot''', or '''greater plantain''') |
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| − | ''Plantago major'' is one of the most abundant and widely distributed medicinal crops in the world. A [[poultice]] of the leaves can be applied to wounds, stings, and sores in order to facilitate healing and prevent infection. The active chemical constituents are [[aucubin]] (an anti-microbial agent), [[allantoin]] (which stimulates cellular growth and tissue regeneration), and [[mucilage]] (which reduces pain and discomfort). Plantain has astringent properties, and a tea made from the leaves can be ingested to treat diarrhea and soothe raw internal membranes.
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| − | Broadleaf plantain is also a highly nutritious [[leaf vegetable]] that is high in calcium and vitamins A, C, and K. The young, tender leaves can be eaten raw, and the older, stringier leaves can be boiled in stews and eaten.
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| − | ==Description==
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| − | [[File:Broadleaf Plantain (Plantago major) growing in crack in sidewalk.JPG|thumb|right|''Plantago major'' is notable for its ability to colonize compacted and disturbed soils, and to survive repeated trampling.]]
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| − | ''Plantago major'' is an [[herbaceous]] [[perennial plant]] with a [[Rosette (botany)|rosette]] of [[leaf|leaves]] 15–30 cm in diameter.<ref name="pakistan" /><ref name="blamey">Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). ''Flora of Britain and Northern Europe''. {{ISBN|0-340-40170-2}} {{page needed|date=July 2012}}</ref>
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| − | Each leaf is oval-shaped, 5–20 cm long and 4–9 cm broad, rarely up to 30 cm long and 17 cm broad, with an acute apex and a smooth margin; there are five to nine conspicuous veins.<ref>Parnell, J. and Curtis, T. 2012. ''Webb's An Irish Flora''. Cork University Press. {{ISBN|978-185918-4783}}</ref> The [[flower]]s are small, greenish-brown with purple [[stamen]]s, produced in a dense spike 5–15 cm long on top of a stem 13–15 cm tall (rarely to 700 cm tall).<ref name="pakistan" /><ref name="blamey" />
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| − | Plantain is wind-pollinated, and propagates primarily by seeds, which are held on the long, narrow spikes which rise well above the foliage.<ref name=blamey/><ref>{{cite book|author=Sauer, Leslie Jones|title=The Once and Future Forest|year=1998|publisher=Island Press|isbn=1-55963-553-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bC76cUM721sC|page=49}}{{vn|date=July 2012}}</ref> Each plant can produce up to 20,000 seeds, which are very small and oval-shaped, with a bitter taste.<ref name="Samuelsen-2000-p1">{{cite journal|author=Samuelsen, Anne Berit|title=The traditional uses, chemical constituents and biological activities of Plantago major L. A review|work=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=77|issue=1–2|date=July 2000|doi=10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00212-9|issn=0378-8741|page=1|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00212-9}}</ref>
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| − | There are three [[subspecies]]:<ref name=flora/>
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| − | *''Plantago major'' subsp. ''major''.
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| − | *''Plantago major'' subsp. ''intermedia'' (DC.) Arcang.
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| − | *''Plantago major'' subsp. ''winteri'' (Wirtg.) W.Ludw.
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| − | ==Ecology==
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| − | [[File:Plantago major 05 ies.jpg|thumb|right|Developing fruits of ''Plantago major'']]
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| − | ''Plantago major'' grows in lawns and fields, along roadsides, and in other areas that have been disturbed by humans. It does particularly well in [[soil compaction|compacted]] or disturbed soils. It is believed to be one of the first plants to reach [[North America]] after European colonisation. Reportedly brought to the Americas by Puritan colonizers, plantain was known among some Native American peoples by the common name "white man's footprint", because it thrived in the disturbed and damaged ecosystems surrounding European settlements.<ref>{{cite book|author=Duke, James|title=Handbook of Edible Weeds|publisher=CRC Press|year=2001|isbn=9780849329463|page=150|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVrteo-8cI0C&pg=PA150}}</ref> The ability of plantain to survive frequent trampling and colonize compacted soils makes it important for [[soil rehabilitation]]. Its roots break up hardpan surfaces, while simultaneously holding together the soil to prevent [[erosion]].<ref name="Tilford-1998-p163">{{cite book|authors=Tilford, Gregory L. & Gladstar, Rosemary|title=From Earth to Herbalist: An Earth-Conscious Guide to Medicinal Plants|publisher=Mountain Press|year=1998|isbn=9780878423729|page=163|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9VXQ1O1nYEC&pg=PA163}}</ref>
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| − | The seeds of plantain are a common contaminant in [[cereal|cereal grain]] and other crop seeds. As a result, it now has a worldwide distribution.<ref name=grin/>
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| − | ==Edibility==
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| − | The leaves are edible as a salad green when young and tender, but they quickly become tough and fibrous as they get older. The older leaves can be cooked in stews.<ref>{{cite book|authors=Scott, Timothy Lee & Buhner, Steven Harrod|title=Invasive Plant Medicine: The Ecological Benefits and Healing Abilities of Invasives|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|year=2010|isbn=9781594773051|page=253|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RZV5f4EnTf8C&pg=PA253}}</ref> The leaves contain [[calcium]] and other minerals, with 100 grams of plantain containing approximately the same amount of [[vitamin A]] as a large [[carrot]]. The seeds are so small that they are tedious to gather, but they can be ground into a flour substitute or extender.<ref>{{cite book|authors=Vizgirdas, Ray S. & Rey-Vizgirdas, Edna|title=Wild Plants Of The Sierra Nevada|publisher=University of Nevada Press|year=2005|isbn=9780874175356|pages=148–149|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fYHi-Eyyt4C&pg=PA148}}</ref>
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| − | ==Medicinal use==
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| − | Plantain is found all over the world, and is one of the most abundant and accessible [[medicinal herbs]].<ref name="Green">{{cite book|author=Green, James|title=The Herbal Medicine Maker's Handbook: A Home Manual|publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|year=2000|isbn=9780895949905|pages=314–315|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5nxKJ7SocEUC&pg=PT314}}</ref> It contains many bioactive compounds, including [[allantoin]], [[aucubin]], [[ursolic acid]], [[flavonoids]], and [[asperuloside]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Duke, James A.|chapter=Plantago major|title=Handbook of Phytochemical Constituents of GRAS Herbs and Other Economic Plants|publisher=CRC Press|year=2001|isbn=9780849338656|page=471|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5AhRgbW8UIC&pg=PA471}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation|title=A Guide to Medicinal Plants in North Africa|year=2005|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)|isbn=9782831708935|pages=190|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CBbU4Q0WYXEC&pg=PA190}}</ref> Scientific studies have shown that plantain extract has a wide range of biological effects, including "wound healing activity, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, weak antibiotic, immuno modulating and antiulcerogenic activity".<ref name="Samuelsen-2000-p1" />
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| − | For millennia, [[poultice]]s of plantain leaves have been applied to wounds, sores, and stings to promote healing.<ref name="Duke-2001-p151">{{cite book|author=Duke, James|title=Handbook of Edible Weeds|publisher=CRC Press|year=2001|isbn=9780849329463|page=151|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVrteo-8cI0C&pg=PA151}}</ref> (The clown [[Costard]] cries out for a plantain after cutting his shin in Shakespeare's ''[[Love's Labour's Lost]]''.)<ref>William Shakespeare, ''Love's Labour's Lost'', (act III, sc. i), c.1595/95 (first [[quarto]] appearance, 1598), http://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/views/plays/play_view.php?WorkID=loveslabours&Act=3&Scene=1&Scope=scene</ref> The active constituents are the anti-microbial compound [[aucubin]], the cell-growth promoter [[allantoin]], a large amount of soothing [[mucilage]], [[flavonoids]], [[caffeic acid]] derivatives, and alcohols in the wax on the leaf surface. The root of plantain was also traditionally used to treat wounds, as well as to treat fever and respiratory infections.<ref>{{cite book|authors=Foster, Steven & Hobbs, Christopher|title=A Field Guide to Western Medicinal Plants and Herbs|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2002|isbn=9780395838068|page=224|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tg_bPUzhJ9oC&pg=PT247}}</ref>
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| − | Due to its astringent properties, a tea of plantain ''leaves'' can be ingested to treat [[diarrhea]] or [[dysentery]]. Due to the high vitamin and mineral content, plantain tea simultaneously replenishes the nutrients lost as a result of diarrhea.<ref>{{cite book|author=U.S. Department of Defense|title=FM 21-76-1: Survival, Evasion, and Recovery: Multiservice Procedures|publisher=Air Land Sea Application Center|date=June 1999|page=V-16|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/21-76-1/fm_21-76-1survival.pdf}}</ref> Adding fresh plantain ''seeds or flower heads'' to a tea will act as an effective lubricating and bulking [[laxative]] and soothe raw, sore throats.<ref>{{cite book|authors=Tilford, Gregory L. & Gladstar, Rosemary|title=From Earth to Herbalist: An Earth-Conscious Guide to Medicinal Plants|publisher=Mountain Press|year=1998|isbn=9780878423729|page=160|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9VXQ1O1nYEC&pg=PA160}}</ref>
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| − | When ingested, the aucubin in plantain leaves leads to increased [[uric acid]] excretion from the [[kidneys]], and may be useful in treating gout.<ref>{{cite book|author=Meuninck, Jim|title=Medicinal Plants of North America: A Field Guide|publisher=Globe Pequot|year=2008|isbn=9780762742981|page=9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zz_mk5A2jSEC&pg=PA9}}</ref>
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| − | ==Other uses==
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| − | The mature plant contains pliable and tough fibres that can be used in survival situations to make small cords, fishing line, sutures, or braiding.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tilford, Gregory L.|title=Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West|publisher=Mountain Press|year=1997|isbn=9780878423590|page=112|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_s7sD11RM8C&pg=PA112}}</ref>
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| − | [[File:Purple Plantago major.JPG|thumb|Cultivar 'Rubrifolia' of Plantago major]]
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| − | Some [[cultivar]]s are planted as ornamentals in [[gardens]], including 'Rubrifolia' with purple leaves, and 'Variegata' with [[variegation|variegated]] leaves.<ref name=rhs>Huxley, A., ed. (1992). ''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. {{ISBN|0-333-47494-5}}</ref>
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| − | ==References==
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| − | {{Commons|Plantago major}}
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| − | {{Wikiversity-bc|Plantago major}}
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| − | {{Reflist}}
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| − | {{Herbs used as laxatives}}
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| − | {{Taxonbar|from=Q157154}}
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| − | [[Category:Plantago|major]]
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| − | [[Category:Flora of Europe]]
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| − | [[Category:Demulcents]]
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| − | [[Category:Medicinal plants]]
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| − | [[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
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| − | [[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
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