Difference between revisions of "Apocynaceae"

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#redirect [[:Category:Apocynaceae]]
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{{Further|List of subfamilies and genera of Apocynaceae}}
 
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{{Taxobox
 
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| image = Apocynum cannabinum 5.jpg
 
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| image_caption = ''[[Apocynum cannabinum]]''
 
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| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
 
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| unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
 
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| unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
 
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| unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]]
 
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| ordo = [[Gentianales]]
 
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| familia = '''Apocynaceae'''
 
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| familia_authority = [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Juss.]]
 
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| type_genus = ''[[Apocynum]]''
 
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| type_genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
 
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| synonyms =
 
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*Asclepiadaceae <small>[[Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen|Borkh.]]</small> (nom. cons.)
 
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*Periplocaceae <small>[[Rudolf Schlechter|Schltr.]]</small> (nom. cons.)
 
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*Plumeriaceae <small>[[Paul Fedorowitsch Horaninow|Horan.]]</small>
 
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*Stapeliaceae <small>[[Paul Fedorowitsch Horaninow|Horan.]]</small>
 
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*Vincaceae <small>[[Lorenz Chrysanth von Vest|Vest]]</small>
 
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*Willughbeiaceae <small>[[Jacob Georg Agardh|J. Agardh]]</small>
 
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}}
 
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{{Commons category|Apocynaceae}}
 
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{{Wikispecies}}
 
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'''Apocynaceae''' is a family of [[Angiosperm|flowering plant]]s that includes [[tree]]s, [[shrub]]s, [[herb]]s, [[stem succulent]]s, and [[vine]]s, commonly called the dogbane family,<ref name="BotanicalReview2000">{{cite journal |author=Endress ME, Bruyns PV|year=2000|title=A revised classification of the Apocynaceae s.l.|journal=The Botanical Review|volume=66|issue=1|pages=1–56|doi=10.1007/BF02857781}}</ref> after the American plant known as dogbane, ''[[Apocynum cannabinum]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Heiser CB|title=Weeds in my garden: observations on some misunderstood plants|year=2003|publisher=Timber Press|location=Portland, Oregon|ISBN=0-88192-562-4|page=50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nN1ohECdSC8C&pg=PA50&dq=Apocynaceae+dogbane#v=onepage&q=Apocynaceae%20dogbane&f=false}}</ref> Members of the family are native to [[Europe]]an, [[Asia]]n, [[Africa]]n, [[Australia]]n, and [[Americas|American]] [[tropics]] or [[subtropics]], with some temperate members.<ref name="BotanicalReview2000"/> The family Asclepiadaceae (now known as [[Asclepiadoideae]]) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera.
 
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Many species are tall trees found in [[tropical rainforest]]s, but some grow in tropical dry ([[xeric]]) environments. Also [[perennial plant|perennial]] herbs from [[temperate zone]]s occur. Many of these plants have milky [[latex]], and many species are [[poison]]ous if ingested.  Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as ''[[Adenium]]'', have milky latex apart from their sap, and others, such as ''[[Pachypodium]]'', have clear sap and no latex.
 
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==Description==
 
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[[File:Alstonia scholaris by kadavoor.JPG|thumb||left|150px|''[[Alstonia scholaris]]'', arrangement of leaves]]
 
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===Growth pattern===
 
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The dogbane family includes [[annual plant]]s, [[perennial plant|perrenial herbs]], [[stem succulent]]s, [[shrub|woody shrubs]], [[tree]]s, or [[vine (botany)|vine]]s.<ref name="BotanicalReview2000" /><ref name=Jepson/> Most{{citation needed|date=September 2014}} exude a milky sap with latex{{citation needed|date=September 2014}}, if injured.
 
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===Leaves and stems===
 
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[[leaf|Leaves]] are not divided into smaller [[leaflet (botany)|leaflets]] ([[Simple (leaf)|simple]]). Leaves may appear one at a time (singly) with each occurrence on alternating sides of the stem ([[alternate (leaf)|alternate]]),<ref name=Jepson>[http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?key=50 Apocynaceae, Thomas Rosatti, Jepson Herbarium]</ref> but usually{{citation needed|date=September 2014}} occur in pairs or in [[whorls (botany)|whorl]]s. When paired, they occur on opposite sides of the stem (opposite), with each pair occurring at an angle rotated 90° to the pair below it ([[decussate]]).
 
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There is no [[stipule]] (a small leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf stem), or stipules are small and sometimes fingerlike.<ref name=Jepson/>
 
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===Inflorescence and fruit===
 
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{{unreferenced section|date=September 2014}}
 
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{{expand section|material on whole of plant, editing down the over-description of the flowers, in all cases from established botanical '''''secondary sources''''' (texts, reviews, etc.)|small=no|date=June 2015}}
 
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[[Flower]]s are usually showy,{{citation needed|date=September 2014}} have radial symmetry ([[actinomorphic]]), and are born in head that are [[cyme (botany)|cyme]]s or [[raceme]]s, but can rarely be [[fascicle (botany)|fasciculate]] or solitary. They are [[Perfect flower|perfect]] (bisexual), with a [[synsepal|synsepalous]], five-lobed [[sepal|calyx]] united into a tube at the base. Inflorescences are terminal or [[axillary bud|axillary]]. Five [[petal]]s are united into a tube with four or five [[stamen|epipetalous stamen]]s. The [[style (botany)|style]] is expanded at the apex into a massive ''clavuncle'' just below the [[stigma (botany)|stigma]]. The [[ovary (plants)|ovary]] is usually [[Ovary (botany)#Superior ovary|superior]], ''bicarpellary,'' and ''apocarpous,'' with a common fused style and stigma.
 
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The fruit is a [[drupe]], a [[Berry (botany)|berry]], a [[capsule (fruit)|capsule]], or a [[Follicle (fruit)|follicle]].
 
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==Gallery==
 
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<gallery perrow="6">
 
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File:Alyxia.oliviformis1web.jpg|''[[Alyxia oliviformis]]''
 
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File:Catharanthus pusillus (Tiny Periwinkle) W IMG 3208.jpg|''[[Catharanthus pusillus]]''
 
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File:Cryptolepis buchananii (Indian sarsaparilla) W2 IMG 3219.jpg|''[[Cryptolepis buchananii]]''
 
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File:Holarrhena pubescens in Ananthagiri, AP W IMG 9278.jpg|''[[Holarrhena pubescens]]''
 
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File:Saba senegalensis 0002.jpg|''[[Saba senegalensis]]''
 
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File:Wrightia tinctoria flowers in Keesaraguda, AP W IMG 9109.jpg|''[[Wrightia tinctoria]]''
 
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</gallery>
 
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==Taxonomy==
 
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{{Further|List of subfamilies and genera of Apocynaceae}}
 
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As of 2012, the family was described as comprising some 5,100 species, where [[Apocynoideae]], [[Asclepiadoideae]], [[Periplocoideae]], [[Rauvolfioideae]], and [[Secamonoideae]] are its five subfamilies.<ref name=NazarChase13>Nazia Nazar, David J. Goyder, James J. Clarkson, Tariq Mahmood and Mark W. Chase, 2013, "The taxonomy and systematics of ''Apocynaceae'': Where we stand in 2012," ''[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|Bot. J. Linnean Soc.]],'' 171(3, March),  pp. 482–490, see [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/boj.12005/abstract], accessed 22 June 2015.</ref> The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III  ([[APG III system|APG III]]) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy.<ref name="APGIII">{{cite journal|author=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2009|title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III|journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|Bot. J. Linnean Soc.]]|volume=161|issue=2|pages=105–121|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x}}</ref>
 
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An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014.<ref name=Endress2014>{{Cite journal |author=Endress M.E., Liede-Schumann S. & Meve U. |year=2014 |title=An updated classification for ''Apocynaceae'' |journal=Phytotaxa  |volume=159 |pages=175–194  |url=http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2014/f/p00159p194f.pdf  |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.159.3.2}}</ref>
 
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==Distribution and habitat==
 
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{{unreferenced section|date=June 2015}}
 
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[[File:Flower-01-KayEss-1.jpeg|thumb|''[[Wrightia antidysenterica]]'']]
 
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Species in this family are distributed mainly in tropical regions:
 
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*In the [[rainforests]] and [[swamp]]s of [[Indomalaya]]: small to very tall [[evergreen]] [[tree]]s up to 80 m tall, often with buttress roots, such as ''[[Alstonia]]'' and ''[[Dyera]]''
 
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*In northern Australia: small evergreen trees such as ''[[Alstonia]]'', ''[[Alyxia]]'', ''[[Cerbera]]'' and ''[[Ochrosia]]''
 
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*In deciduous forests of Africa and India: smaller trees such as ''[[Carissa]]'', ''[[Wrightia]]'' and ''[[Holarrhena]]''
 
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*In tropical America, India, Myanmar and Malaya: evergreen trees and shrubs, such as ''[[Rauvolfia]]'', ''[[Tabernaemontana]]'' and ''[[Acokanthera]]''
 
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*In Central America: ''[[Plumeria]]'', or the frangipani, with its waxy white or pink flowers and a sweet scent
 
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*In South America, Africa and Madagascar: many [[liana]]s, such as ''[[Landolphia]]''
 
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*In the Mediterranean region: ''[[Nerium]]'', with the well-known oleander or be-still tree (''[[Nerium oleander]]'')
 
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*The only genera found in temperate [[Europe]] away from the Mediterranean are ''[[Vinca]]'' (Apocynoideae) and ''[[Vincetoxicum]]'' (Asclepiadoideae). Also ''[[Asclepias syriaca]]'' is an invasive weed (e. g., in many areas of [[Ukraine]]).
 
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*In North America: ''[[Apocynum]]'', dogbane or Indian hemp, including ''[[Apocynum cannabinum]]'', a traditional source of fiber
 
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*In continental southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe) and Madagascar, except for the humid evergreen forest of the eastern side of Madagascar, and never above 2000 m for the entire island: ''[[Pachypodium]]'' and ''[[Fockea]]''
 
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==Ecology==
 
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Several genera are preferred larval host plants for the [[Queen (butterfly)|Queen Butterfly]] (''Danaus gilippus'').<ref>{{cite book|last=Klots|first=Alexander B.|title=A Field Guide to the Butterflies of North America, East of the Great Plains|year=1951|publisher=The Riverside Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|pages=77–79}}</ref>
 
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==Toxicity==
 
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{{expand section|sourced information from texts and other secondary literature, on the known toxicities of ''Apocynaceae''-derived substances|small=no|date=June 2015}}
 
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All plant-derived (i.e., [[phytochemical]]) [[natural product]]s have some inherent toxicity on ingestion, and many are very toxic, even lethal. This is true of many contained in species of plants from the ''Apocynaceae'' family, which include several that are extremely poisonous if parts are ingested, or if they are not handled properly. Members containing cardiac glycosides—genera ''[[Acokanthera]]'', ''[[Apocynum]]'', ''[[Cerbera]]'', ''[[Nerium]]'', ''[[Thevetia]],'' ''[[Strophanthus]],'' etc.{{cn|date=June 2015}}—have therapeutic ranges, but often are associated with accidental poisonings, in many cases lethal (see below). [[Alkaloid]]-producing species like ''[[Rauvolfia serpentina|Rauvolfia]],'' ''[[Catharanthus roseus|Catharanthus]],'' and ''[[ibogaine|Tabernathe]]'' are likewise the source of compounds with possible therapeutic ranges, but which have significant associated toxicities if not taken in appropriate doses and in controlled fashion.{{cn|date=June 2015}}
 
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==Uses==
 
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{{refimprove science|section|date=June 2015}}
 
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[[File:Vinca major0.jpg|thumb|''[[Vinca major]]'', a popular garden plant]] 
 
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Several plants of the Apocynaceae family members have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of important [[natural product]]s—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual [[prescription drugs]].{{cn|date=June 2015}} [[Cardiac glycoside]]s, which affect heart function, are a ready example.{{cn|date=June 2015}}  Members studied and known to have such glycosides include the ''[[Acokanthera]]'', ''[[Apocynum]]'', ''[[Cerbera]]'', ''[[Nerium]]'', ''[[Thevetia]]'' and ''[[Strophanthus]].''{{cn|date=June 2015}} ''[[Rauvolfia serpentina]]'' (Indian snakeroot) synthesizes the [[alkaloid]]s [[reserpine]] and [[rescinnamine]], which are of interest in studies of the treatment of [[high blood pressure]],{{cn|date=June 2015}} as well as some forms of [[psychosis]].{{cn|date=June 2015}} ''[[Catharanthus roseus]]'' yields alkaloids studied with regard to the treatment of cancer.{{cn|date=June 2015}} Certain species of the genus [[ibogaine|Tabernathe]], most notably [[ibogaine|Tabernathe Iboga]] contain [[tryptamine]] alkaloids such as [[ibogaine]] in the roots.{{cn|date=June 2015}}
 
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Several genera are grown as [[ornamental plant]]s, including ''[[Amsonia]]'' (bluestar), ''[[Nerium]]'' (oleander), ''[[Vinca]]'' (periwinkle), ''[[Carissa]]'' (Natal plum), ''[[Allamanda]]'' (golden trumpet), ''[[Plumeria]]'' (frangipani), ''[[Thevetia]]'' (lucky nut), ''[[Mandevilla]]'' (Savannah flower), and ''[[Adenium]]'' (desert-rose).{{cn|date=June 2015}}
 
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In addition, the genera ''[[Landolphia]]'', ''[[Hancornia]]'', ''[[Funtumia]]'' and ''[[Mascarenhasia]]'' were used as a commercial source of inferior rubber (see [[Congo rubber]], made mostly from various ''Landolphia'' species harvested in the wild).{{cn|date=June 2015}}
 
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There may be reports of limited dietary uses of plants from this family,{{what?|date=June 2015}}—see however the section on toxicity above. The edible flower of ''[[Fernaldia pandurata]]'' (common name: ''{{lang|es|loroco}}'') is a popular part of [[El Salvador]]ian and [[Guatemala]]n cooking.{{cn|date=June 2015}} ''[[Carissa]]'' (Natal plum) produces an edible fruit.{{cn|date=June 2015}} The genus ''[[Apocynum]]'' was reportedly used as a source of fiber by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]].{{cn|date=June 2015}} The aromatic fruit juice from ''[[Saba comorensis]]'' (syn. ''Landolphia comorensis'', the [[Bungo (fruit)|Bungo or Mbungo fruit]]) is a popular drink,{{verification needed|date=June 2015}}{{cn|date=June 2015}} on [[Pemba Island]] and other parts of coastal [[Tanzania]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/AFTPDFS/Saba_comorensis.pdf |title= ''Saba comorensis'' in Agroforestree Database|accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref>
 
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Finally, ethnopharmacologic and ethnotoxicologic uses are also known. [[Ibogaine]]-type [[alkaloid]]s from the roots of genus ''[[ibogaine|Tabernathe]]'' have been used in traditional African tribal ceremonies as a source of hallucinogens,{{cn|date=June 2015}} and have been studied with regard to the treatment of  drug addiction.{{cn|date=June 2015}} The juice of ''[[Acokanthera]]'' species such as ''[[Acokanthera venenata|A. venenata]]'' and the milky juice of the [[Namibia]]n ''[[Pachypodium]]'' have reportedly been used as venom for arrow tips by the [[San people]],{{cn|date=June 2015}} though others have reported that ''Pachypodium'' do not produce such milk.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rapanarivo SHJV, Leeuwenberg AJM|year=1999|title=''Pachypodium'' (Apocynaceae): taxonomy, habitats and cultivation|chapter=Taxonomic revision of ''Pachypodium''. Series of revisions of Apocynaceac XLVIII|editor=Rapanarivo SHJV|publisher=Balkema|ISBN=978-90-5410-485-8|pages=1–82}}</ref>
 
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==References==
 
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{{reflist}}
 
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{{taxonbar}}
 
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[[Category:Apocynaceae| ]]
 
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[[Category:Asterid families]]
 
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[[Category:Poisonous plants]]
 

Latest revision as of 10:10, 13 July 2017

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