Difference between revisions of "Burseraceae"

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-{{taxobox
+#redirect [[:Category:Burseraceae]]
-| name = Burseraceae
-| image = Bursera simaruba0.jpg
-| image_caption = ''[[Bursera simaruba]]'' (Gumbo-limbo)
-| regnum = [[Plantae]]
-| unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
-| unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
-| unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
-| ordo = [[Sapindales]]
-| familia = '''Burseraceae'''
-| familia_authority = [[Carl Sigismund Kunth|Kunth]]<ref name=APGIII2009>{{Cite journal |last=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2009 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x/pdf | format= PDF |accessdate=2013-07-06 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x }}</ref>
-| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
-| subdivision = See text.
-}}
-The '''Burseraceae''' are a moderate-sized [[family (biology)|family]] of 17-19 [[genus|genera]] and about 540 [[species]] of [[flowering plant]]s. The actual numbers differ according to the time period in which a given source is written describing this family. The Burseraceae are also known as the '''torchwood''' family,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dimmitt|first1=Mark A.|title=Burseraceae (torchwood family)|url=https://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_burseraceae.php|website=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum|publisher=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum|accessdate=13 March 2016}}</ref> the [[frankincense]] and [[myrrh]] family, or simply the incense tree family. The family includes both [[tree]]s and [[shrub]]s, and is native to tropical regions of Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
-Just as the family size (in terms of genera and species) differs according to the time period of the study, so, too, does its placement in the higher ranks. Nevertheless, the family is a genetically supported [[monophyletic]] group currently and frequently cited within the [[Sapindales]] and is recognized as a sister group to the [[Anacardiaceae]].
-The Burseraceae are characterized by the nonallergenic resin they produce in virtually all plant tissue and the distinctive smooth, yet flaking, aromatic bark,.<ref name=judd_2008>Judd, W.S., Campbell, C.S., Kellogg, E.A., Stevens, P.F., and M.J. Donoghue. 2008. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA.</ref><ref name=stevens_2001>Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Website]]. Version 8, June 2007 [and more or less continuously updated since]  http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/</ref> The origins of the family can be traced to the [[Paleocene]] (about 65 Mya) when ''Beiselia mexicana'' first diverged in [[Mexico]].<ref name=weeks_2005>Weeks, A., Daly, D.C. and B.B. Simpson. 2005. The phylogenetic history and biogeography of the frankincense and myrrh family (Burseraceae) based on nuclear and chloroplast sequence data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 35: 85-101.
-</ref> The subsequent divergences in the family lineage and migration of the species in the [[Eocene]] (53 Mya) from North America have led to the current distributions of the species that are primarily associated with the tropics.<ref name=weeks_2005 /> Though the family likely originated in North America, the greatest generic diversity presently is in the Southern Hemisphere.<ref name=weeks_2005 /> [[Tabonuco]] (''Dacryodes excelsa'') and [[gumbo limbo]] (''Bursera simaruba'') represent the economic, ethnobotanical, and ecological significance of the Burseraceae in the Western Hemisphere, while frankincense (''Boswellia sacra'') and myrrh (''Commiphora myrrha'') represent the same in the Eastern Hemisphere.
-==Key characteristics==
-The Burseraceae [[trees]] or [[shrubs]] are characterized by [[resins]] (having [[triterpenoids]] and ethereal oils;<ref name=cronquist_1981>Cronquist, A. 1981. An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. Columbia University Press, New York, New York, USA.</ref> that are present within the plant tissue from the vertical resin canals and ducts in the [[bark]] to the leaf veins.<ref name="judd_2008"/><ref name=stevens_2001 /><ref name=harley_2005>Harley, M.M., Song, U. and H.I. Banks. 2005. Pollen morphology and systematics of Burseraceae. Grana, 44: 282-299.</ref><ref name=heywood_1993>Heywood, V.H. 1993. Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York, New York, USA.</ref><ref name=mabberley_1997>Mabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book: A portable dictionary of the vascular plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.</ref> In fact, the [[synapomorphy]] of the Burseraceae is the smooth yet peeling or flaking aromatic bark.<ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=stevens_2001 /> The clear, nonallergenic <ref name=judd_2008 /> resins may smell like almonds,<ref name=stevens_2001 /> but at least the most well known resins, frankincense and myrrh, have an odor that is distinct from almonds, smelling like incense. The leaves are generally alternate, spiral, and odd-pinnately compound with opposite, frequently long-petiolulate, entire to serrate, pinnately veined [[leaflet (botany)|leaflets]] whose symmetry is distinctive in some genera.<ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=stevens_2001 /> However, some members are known to have trifoliate or unifoliate leaves.<ref name=judd_2008 /> The leaf and leaflet stalks and axis may be brown and scurfy, while the leaf base is swollen and may be concave adaxially.<ref name=stevens_2001 /> The family members tend to be without [[stipule]]s.<ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=heywood_1993 />  The determinate, axillary [[inflorescence]]s carry small, radial, unisexual flowers.<ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=heywood_1993 /> The plants tend to be [[dioecious]].<ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=heywood_1993 /> The flowers may have four or five faintly connate but imbricate [[sepal]]s with an equal number of distinct, imbricate [[petal]]s.<ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=heywood_1993 /> Also, the stamens, that may contain [[nectar disc]]s, have distinct glabrous [[wiktionary:Filament|filament]]s that occur in one or two whorls and in numbers equaling or twice the number of petals; the tricolporate [[pollen]] is contained within two [[locule]]s of the [[anther]]s that open longitudinally along slits.<ref name=judd_2008 /> The [[gynoecium]] contains 3-5 connate [[carpel]]s, one [[Gynoecium|style]], and one stigma that is head-like to lobed.<ref name=judd_2008 /> Each locule of the superior ovary has two [[ovule]]s with axile placentation that are anatropous to campylotropous.<ref name=judd_2008 /> The one- to five-pitted [[fruit]] is a [[drupe]] that opens at maturity.<ref name=judd_2008 /> The endosperm is usually lacking in the embryo.<ref name=judd_2008 />
-==Tribes, subtribes, and genera==
-Some discrepancy exists in the literature about the size of the Burseraceae. Records say that the family has 17 <ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=heywood_1993 /><ref name=mabberley_1997 /> to 18 <ref name=weeks_2005 /><ref name=harley_2005 /> genera and 500 <ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=heywood_1993/> to 540 <ref name=mabberley_1997 /> to 726 species.<ref name=weeks_2005 />  Other authors cite different numbers: 16-20 genera and 600 species;<ref name=cronquist_1981 /> 20 genera and 500-600 species;<ref name=lawrence_1951>Lawrence, G.H.M. 1951. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. The Macmillan Company, New York, New York, USA.</ref> According to a pollen studies and molecular data, the family is split into three [[tribe]]s: the Protieae, Bursereae, and Canarieae. The Protieae are composed of ''Protium'' (147 species and largest in this tribe), ''Crepidospermum, Garuga'', and ''Tetragastris''.<ref name=harley_2005 /> The Bursereae, which are further split into [[subtribe]]s Boswelliinae and Burserinae, contain ''Commiphora'' (nearly 200 species and largest in the family), ''Aucoumea, Beiselia, Boswellia, Bursera,'' and ''Triomma''.<ref name=harley_2005 /> Finally, the Canarieae are composed of ''Canarium'' (75 species and largest in this tribe), ''Dacryodes, Haplolobus, Pseudodacryodes, Rosselia, Santiria, Scutinanthe'', and ''Trattinnickia''.<ref name=harley_2005 /> The morphology of the fruit, which is a drupe, helps to distinguish between the three tribes.<ref name=heywood_1993 /><ref name=mabberley_1997 /> Though the groupings have slightly changed since the 1990s, the Protieae are described as having a two- to five-parted drupe <ref name=mabberley_1997 /> with either ‘free or adhering parts’ which are ‘not fused in the endocarp’;<ref name=heywood_1993 /> The Bursereae are described as having a drupe with parts that are fused in the [[endocarp]], but an [[exocarp]] with dehiscing valves;<ref name=heywood_1993 /><ref name=mabberley_1997 /> and the Canarieae as simply having a drupe with parts that are fused in the endocarp.<ref name=heywood_1993 /><ref name=mabberley_1997 />
-===Taxonomy===
-This is a list of the 19 genera of the Burseraceae with placement in tribe and subtribe (where applicable):<ref name=weeks_2005 />
-{|
-|- valign=top
-|
-Bursereae subtribe Burserinae
-*''[[Bursera]]''
-*''[[Commiphora]]'' (myrrh)
-|
-|
-|
-Bursereae subtribe Boswelliinae
-*''[[Aucoumea]]''
-*''[[Beiselia]]''
-*''[[Boswellia]]'' (frankincense)
-*''[[Triomma]]''
-*''[[Garuga]]''
-|
-|
-|
-Canarieae
-*''[[Ambilobea]]''
-*''[[Canarium]]''
-*''[[Dacryodes]]''
-*''[[Haplolobus (plant)|Haplolobus]]''
-*''[[Pseudodacryodes]]''
-*''[[Rosselia]]''
-*''[[Santiria]]''
-*''[[Scutinanthe]]''
-*''[[Trattinnickia]]''
-|
-Protieae
-*''[[Crepidospermum]]''
-*''[[Protium (plant)|Protium]]''
-*''[[Tetragastris]]''
-|}
-==Order==
-According to the literature, the Burseraceae have not been lumped with other families nor split up into several others. However, they have jumped orders several times. For example, in the early 19th century, the family seems to have been placed in the [[Burserales]], with the [[Anacardiaceae]] and [[Podoaceae]].<ref>Takhtajan, A. 1997. Diversity and Classification of Flowering Plants. Columbia University Press, New York, New York, USA.</ref> In the mid-19th century and early 20th century, the family was placed in the Geraniales.<ref name=harley_2005 /><ref name="lawrence_1951"/>  Then, by the mid- and late-20th century, the family was moved to the Rutales.<ref name=harley_2005 /> Finally, in the late 20th century, the family was (and today still is) located within the Sapindales.<ref name=harley_2005 />  Families that are consistently found in the same order as the Burseraceae (except when in the Burserales) include the [[Rutaceae]], [[Meliaceae]], and [[Simaroubaceae]].<ref name=harley_2005 /> Only in recent studies were the Burseraceae and the [[Anacardiaceae]] seen as sister groups.<ref name=harley_2005 />
-The [[Sapindales]] are contained within the [[malvids]] of the [[rosid]] [[clade]] within the [[eudicotyledons]].<ref name=judd_2008 /> The order contains nine <ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=stevens_2001 /> to 15 families,<ref name=gadek_1996>Gadek, P.A., E.S. Fernando, C.J. Quinn, S.B. Hoot, T. Terrazas, MC. Sheahan, and M.W. Chase. 1996. Sapindales: Molecular delimitation and infraordinal groups. Amer. J. Bot. 83: 802-811.</ref> 460 genera,<ref name=stevens_2001 /> and from 5,400 <ref name=gadek_1996 /> to 5,670 <ref name=stevens_2001 /> to 5,800 species.<ref name=judd_2008 /> The currently recognized families include Aceraceae, Anacardiaceae, Burseraceae, Hippocastanaceae, Julianaceae, Meliaceae, Rutaceae, Sapindaceae, and Simaroubaceae.  The Sapindales are a clade supported by DNA-based analyses on ''rbc''L, ''atp''B, and 18S sequences.<ref name=judd_2008 /> Within the Sapindales are two clades that contain gum and resin: the Rutaceae-Meliaceae-Simaroubaceae clade and  the Burseraceae-Anacardiaceae clade.<ref name=stevens_2001 /> Therefore, the Burseraceae are not the only family with this characteristic. The [[synapomorphies]] of the Sapindales include pinnately compound, alternate and spiral leaves that may be palmately compound, trifoliate, or unifoliate, and small four- or five-merous flowers having a characteristic nectar disk and imbricate petals and sepals.<ref name=judd_2008 /> Some of these characteristics also occur in the [[Rosales]].<ref name=gadek_1996 /> However, the Sapindales and Rutales may actually form a complex, since many families jump between them. Indeed, ''rbc''L sequence studies seem to indicate that a sapindalean/rutalean complex exists and may better represent the relationships of the families than the separate orders would.<ref name=gadek_1996 /> A study based on [[chloroplast]]-encoded [[gene]] ''rbc''L reconstructed cladograms that include families within both the Sapindales and Rutales. One such [[cladogram]] indicated that the Sapindales are robust and that the Burseraceae (and Anacardiaceae) are within a single clade.<ref name=gadek_1996 />  This grouping seems to make sense as both the Burseraceae and Anacardiaceae have secretory canals in the phloem and resin canals in the leaves, and are unique in the Sapindales for having biflavones in the leaf tissue.<ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=gadek_1996 /><ref>Wannan, B.S., Waterhouse, J.T., Gadek, P.A. and C.J. Quinn. 1985. Biflavonyls and the affinities of Blepharocarya. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 13: 105-108.</ref>  However, the two families have several distinguishing characteristics. The resin of the Burseraceae is nonallergenic and two ovules per carpel occur, whereas the resin of the Anacardiaceae can be allergenic or poisonous and one ovule per carpel is found.<ref name=weeks_2005 /><ref name=cronquist_1981 /> The Burseraceae-Anacardiaceae clade is sister to a robust cluster of three other families, the Sapindaceae-Aceraceae-Hippocastanaceae clade.<ref name=gadek_1996 /> The Rutaceae-Meliaceae-Simaroubaceae clade is sister to the Burseraceae-Anacardiaceae and Sapindaceae-Aceraceae-Hippocastanaceae clade.<ref name=gadek_1996 /> The ''rbc''L technique is supported and considered acceptable until other methods become better developed for the analysis.<ref name=gadek_1996 />
-==Biogeography==
-<!--  Commented out because image was deleted: [[Image:Burseraceae.gif|right|thumbnail| Distribution of the Burseraceae]] -->
-The Burseraceae are distributed throughout the world and primarily in the tropics, especially [[Malaysia]], Africa, and Central and South America.<ref name=harley_2005 /><ref name=heywood_1993 /> The three tribes can be linked to a specific region of the world, although this is not obligatory. For example, members of the tribe Protieae are generally found in South America, those of the Bursereae are found in Africa and [[Mesoamerica]], while members of the Canarieae are found in Malaysia.<ref name=harley_2005 /> However, each tribe has a representative genus present in all the tropical regions: ''Dacryodes'' (Canarieae), ''Protium'' (Protieae), and ''Commiphora'' (Bursereae).<ref name=weeks_2005 /> The Burseraceae are found in a variety of habitats, including hot, dry [[desert]] and [[savannah]], as well as in coastal [[mangrove]] forest and [[rain forest]] habitats.<ref name=heywood_1993 /> One study found that the family originated in North America during the [[Paleocene]] (about 65 Mya), when the earliest fossils of the Sapindales are found.<ref name=weeks_2005 /> During the Early to Middle Eocene (about 53 Mya), family members dispersed to eastern [[Laurasia]] (i.e. Europe and Asia) via the [[Boreotropical Land Bridge]] and the continents in the Southern Hemisphere, which is now the area of the greatest generic diversity of this family.<ref name=weeks_2005 />
-More specifically, the earliest diverging genus was ''Beiselia'' (of the Bursereae subtribe Boswelliinae) in either North America, Mexico, or the [[Caribbean]] in the Paleocene.  Similar results from other studies <ref name=weeks_2005 /><ref>Clarkson, J.J., Chase, M.W. and M.M. Harley. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships in Burseraceae based on plastid rps 16 intron sequences. Kew Bull., 57: 183-193.</ref> find that ''Beiselia mexicana'', a native of Mexico, is basal to the remaining Burseraceae. These results may indicate that the family originated in Mexico. The next divergence was in the Early Eocene when the Burserinae (i.e. ''Commiphora'') diverged and emigrated from North America into Africa, [[Madagascar]], and India.<ref name=weeks_2005 /> ''Commiphora'' dispersed throughout Africa during the Middle Eocene (about 44 Mya) and from Africa to Madagascar during the Oligocene (about 30 Mya) via the Mozambique Channel Land Bridge; the spread to India was more recent (about 5 Mya).<ref name=weeks_2005 /> The Canarieae and Boswelliinae (subtribes of Bursereae) dispersed from western [[Laurasia]] and spread eastward during the [[Eocene]]; [[fossils]] of Canarium, for example, from the [[Czech Republic]] date to the Late [[Oligocene]] (23 Mya).<ref name=weeks_2005 /> Finally, the Protieae originated in North America like the rest of the family, then migrated to Africa and Asia through the [[Tethys seaway]] in the Late [[Eocene]] (about 37 Mya), but then made its way back to South America via long-distance dispersal.<ref name=weeks_2005 /> By the late [[Oligocene]] (about 23Mya), all three Burseraceae tribes were extant and dispersed throughout the Northern Hemisphere.<ref name=weeks_2005 />
-The mechanism of seed dispersal via animal link [[dispersal vector|vectors]] ([[endozoochoric]] dispersal) may explain how most Burseraceae were able to expand their range so efficiently across the globe.<ref name=weeks_2005 /> ''Beiselia, Boswellia'', and ''Triomma'' have dry fruits better suited for wind dispersal, but most Burseraceae have fleshy, edible fruit that is eaten by many animal dispersers.<ref name=weeks_2005 /> The seeds may provide a high reward in fat (24-73%) and protein (2.7-25.9%) if digested, but many animals eat just the fleshy part of the fruit and either discard the [[endocarp]] right away or excrete it some time later.<ref name=weeks_2005 /> Some known Burseraceae fruit consumers include hornbills (''Buceros bicornis, Ceratogyma atrata, C. cylindricus, Penelopides panini''), oilbirds (''Steatnoris caripensis''), fruit pigeons, warblers, vireos, orioles, flycatchers, tanagers, woodpeckers, loeries, primates (''Cercopithecus'' spp., ''Lophocebus albigena''), lemurs (''Varecia variegate'' subsp. ''variegate''), and sun bears (''Helarctos malayanus'').<ref name=weeks_2005 /> The fruits may also have been water dispersed.<ref name=weeks_2005 />
-==Economic significance and ethnobotanic uses==
-Several representative species within the Burseraceae typify the economic and ethnobotanic significance of the family. First, ''Dacryodes excelsa'' of the Canarieae is an important old-growth species found in the Caribbean. Second, ''Bursera simaruba'' of the Burserinae is a fast-growing ornamental that is one of a few representatives of the primarily tropical family in the United States. Finally, the namesakes of the family ''Boswellia carterii'' (frankincense) and ''Commiphora abyssinica'' (myrrh) are important economically and medicinally in several parts of the world. Though this is a small subset of the large number of potentially important species, these four members exemplify the wide use and importance of the Burseraceae. The latter three are frequently cited in the literature for their renowned importance.
-Commonly known as tabonuco (or gommier, also candlewood), ''[[Dacryodes excelsa]]'' is a large, dominant tree found in [[Puerto Rico]] and other parts of the Caribbean.<ref name=lugo>{{Silvics |volume=2 |first1=Ariel E. |last1=Lugo |first2=Frank H. |last2=Wadsworth |genus=Dacryodes |species=excelsa}}</ref> The seeds of the tree are a source of food for birds. Like all members, the tree releases sap from the bark when wounded. The clear sap oozes from the tree and hardens to a white, aromatic waxy [[resin]] that can be used to make candles and incense.<ref name=lugo /> Before the arrival of the Spaniards to Puerto Rico, the native [[Taínos]] used the resin to make torches. The wood itself is useful for constructing housing, furniture,  boxes, small boats, and a variety of other wood-based products; the utility of the wood is comparable to that of [[mahogany]] and [[birch]].<ref name=lugo /> In addition, species like ''[[Canarium littorale]], [[Dacryodes costata]], [[Santiria laevigata]],'' and [[Santiria tomentosa]] from Malaysia, as well as ''[[Aucoumea klaineana]]'' and ''[[Canarium schweinfurthii]]'' from Africa, also produce valuable wood for construction projects and carpentry.<ref name=heywood_1993 />
-Several species in the genus ''Canarium'' are used as edible fruits (for example, ''[[Canarium album]]'', the Chinese olive) and nuts (pili nuts, ''[[Canarium ovatum]]'').
-Species in the genus ''Bursera'', especially the [[Bursera microphylla|so-called elephant tree]], grow primarily in Mexico, where their secretions are a raw material in making [[varnish]].<ref name=heywood_1993 /><ref name=lawrence_1951 />  The [[Maya civilization|Maya]] also used a ''Bursera'' sp. to make [[incense]].<ref name=mabberley_1997 />  However, the ''Bursera'' may also be considered an ornamental genus and a common representative of the family in the United States, especially in Florida (''B. simaruba'') and the Southwest (''B. odorata, B. microphylla'').<ref name=judd_2008 /><ref name=lawrence_1951 />
-Naked Indian (also known as gumbo limbo), or ''Bursera simaruba'', in particular, is found in [[Florida]], Mexico, the Caribbean, [[Venezuela]], and [[Brazil]]. The tree is also named the ‘tourist tree’ for its very distinctive flaking red bark; apparently, the tree occurs in tropical areas where many white tourists go on vacation.<ref name=plant_creations>Plant Creations, Inc. Updated: August 28, 2007. Bursera simaruba. http://www.plantcreations.com/bursera_simaruba.htm</ref> The resin from this tree can be used to make varnish and turpentine.<ref name=plant_creations /> In addition, the resin may also be used similarly to [[Liniment|tiger balm]] (containing ''Cinnamomum camphora'' of the [[Lauraceae]]) to relieve sprains and muscle aches.<ref name=plant_creations /> The leaves are used to brew a tea to relieve inflammation.<ref>Carretero, M.E., Lopez-P., J.L., Abad, M.J., Bermejo, P., Tillet, S., Israel, A. and B. Noguera-P. 2007. Preliminary study of the anti-inflammatory activity of hexane extract and fractions from Bursera simaruba (Linneo) Sarg. (Burseraceae)</ref> The bark serves as an antidote to skin irritation caused by ''Metopium toxiferum'' (also known as poisonwood, Florida poison tree, and hog gum) of the Anacardiaceae. The gumbo limbo grows quickly and can be used to make a living fence especially out of cut limbs that are placed straight into the ground or for restoration projects as a pioneer species.<ref name=plant_creations /> The tree is highly tolerant of high-intensity wind such as hurricane-force winds, so is planted in areas where hurricanes occur frequently, such as Florida and the Caribbean. The seeds of this species are also a source of food for birds.
-Frankincense, or olibanum, (''[[Boswellia sacra|Boswellia carterii]]'') and myrrh (''[[Commiphora habessinica|Commiphora abyssinica]]'') have long been valued for the aromatic resins they produce. These resins are extracted via tapping, or cutting of the bark to make it release sap. The liquid sap hardens and is gathered, sold as is or further processed and mixed with spices, seeds, and roots to make various forms of incense.<ref name=dharmananda_2003>Dharmananda, S. Created: May 2003. Myrrh and Frankincense. http://www.itmonline.org/arts/myrrh.htm</ref> Both species are native to parts of Northeast Africa ([[Somalia]], frankincense; Somalia and [[Ethiopia]], myrrh) and [[Arabia]] ([[Oman]] and [[Yemen]], frankincense), but their distribution and use have been extended beyond these regions to India and China.<ref name=dharmananda_2003 /> The best frankincense is grown in Oman and the incense is widely used in worship in India.<ref name=dharmananda_2003 /> The ancient Egyptians prized frankincense for the resin they used to make the characteristic dark eyeliner and myrrh as an embalming agent for deceased [[pharaohs]].<ref name=dharmananda_2003 /><ref>Colombini, M.P., Modugno, F., Silvano, F. and M. Onor. 2000. Characterization of the balm of an Egyptian mummy from the Seventh Century B.C. Studies in Conservation, 45(1): 19-29.</ref> At that time, myrrh was worth more than gold. In modern times resins from these trees are used in Chinese herbal medicine and Indian [[Ayurvedic medicine]] to treat several ailments. Pills containing small doses of frankincense and other ingredients are valued in [[oriental medicine]] for  promoting blood flow and the movement of the ''[[qi]]'' (‘life force’ or ‘spiritual energy’).<ref name=dharmananda_2003 /> and myrrh is similarly claimed to promote blood flow, stimulate the stomach and digestion, and to be useful in treating diabetes, menopause, uterine tumors, [[amenorrhoea]], and [[dysmenorrhea]].<ref name=dharmananda_2003 /> Both frankincense (containing triterpene acids) <ref>Banno, N., Akihisa, T., Yasukawa, K., Tokuda, H., Tabata, K., Nakamura, Y., Nishimura, R., Kimura, Y. and T. Suzuki. 2006. Anti-inflammatory activities of the triterpene acids from the resin of Boswellia carteri. Journal of Ethnopharmacology</ref> and myrrh are used to relieve pain and inflammation as in arthritis and asthma.<ref name=dharmananda_2003 /><ref>Hanus, L.O., Rezanka, T., Dembitsky, V.M. and A. Moussaieff. 2005. Myrrh- Commiphora Chemistry. Biomed. Papers, 149(1): 3-28.</ref>
-<!-- irrelevant  ==See also==
-* [[Desi Sangye Gyatso]] -->
-==References==
-{{Reflist}}
-==External links==
-* [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/burserac.htm Burseraceae] in [https://web.archive.org/web/20101213041459/http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants.]
-{{Commons category|Burseraceae}}
-[[Category:Burseraceae| ]]
-[[Category:Sapindales families]]

Difference between revisions of "Burseraceae"

Latest revision as of 19:57, 17 September 2017

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