Difference between revisions of "Arecaceae"

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{{about|the palm family|the heather family|Ericaceae|the arum family|Araceae}}
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#redirect [[:Category:Arecaceae]]
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{{automatic taxobox
 
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| fossil_range = {{fossil range|80|0}}[[Late Cretaceous]]- Recent
 
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| taxon = Arecaceae
 
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| image = 1859-Martinique.web.jpg
 
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| image_caption = Coconut palm tree ''Cocos nucifera'' in [[Martinique]].
 
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| subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Subfamilies]]
 
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| subdivision = {{taxon list
 
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  |[[Arecoideae]]  |<!-- Missing authority information, circular redirect -->
 
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  |[[Calamoideae]]  |<!-- Missing authority information -->
 
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  |[[Ceroxyloideae]]  |<!-- Missing authority information -->
 
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  |[[Coryphoideae]]  |<!-- Missing authority information -->
 
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  |[[Nypoideae]]  |<!-- Missing authority information --><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/family.pl?95 |title=''Arecaceae'' Bercht. & J. Presl, nom. cons. |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=2007-04-13 |accessdate=2009-07-18}}</ref>
 
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  }}
 
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| diversity = Well over 2600 species in some 202 genera
 
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| diversity_link = list of Arecaceae genera
 
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| authority = [[Bercht.]] & [[J.Presl]], [[nom. cons.]]<ref name="apgiii">{{Citation |last=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2009 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122630309/abstract |accessdate=2010-12-10 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x }}</ref>
 
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The '''Arecaceae''' are a botanical [[family (biology)|family]] of perennial [[climbing palm|climber]]s, shrubs, acaules and trees commonly known as '''palm trees''' (owing to historical usage, the family is alternatively called '''Palmae''').<ref>The name "Palmaceae" is not accepted because the name Arecaceae (and its acceptable alternative Palmae, [http://www.bgbm.org/IAPT/Nomenclature/Code/SaintLouis/0022Ch3Sec2a018.htm ICBN Art. 18.5]) are conserved over other names for the palm family.</ref> They are [[flowering plant]]s, a family in the [[Monocotyledon|monocot]] [[order (biology)|order]] [[Arecales]]. Currently 181 [[Genus|genera]] with around 2600 [[species]] are known,<ref name="Christenhusz-Byng2016">{{cite journal |author1=Christenhusz, M. J. M. |author2=Byng, J. W.  |lastauthoramp=yes | year = 2016 | title = The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 261 | pages = 201–217 | url = http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 | issue = 3 | publisher = Magnolia Press }}</ref> most of them restricted to [[tropics|tropical]] and [[subtropics|subtropical]] climates. Most palms are distinguished by their large, compound, [[evergreen]] leaves, known as fronds, arranged at the top of an unbranched stem. However, palms exhibit an enormous diversity in physical characteristics and inhabit nearly every type of [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] within their range, from [[rainforest]]s to [[desert]]s.
 
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Palms are among the best known and most extensively [[Horticulture|cultivated]] plant families. They have been important to humans throughout much of history. Many common products and foods are derived from palms, and palms are also widely used in landscaping, making them one of the most economically important plants. In many historical cultures, palms were [[Palm branch (symbol)|symbols]] for such ideas as victory, peace, and fertility. For inhabitants of cooler climates today, palms symbolize the tropics and [[Tourism|vacations]].<ref>[http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2001/landscaping.htm Landscaping with Palms in the Mediterranean] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060621031419/http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2001/landscaping.htm |date=June 21, 2006 }}</ref>
 
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==Morphology==
 
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[[File:Various Arecaceae.jpg|left|thumbnail|Various Arecaceae]]
 
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[[Image:Washingtonia filifera in Palm Canyon.jpg|thumb|right|This grove of the native species ''[[Washingtonia filifera]]'' in [[Anza-Borrego Desert State Park|Palm Canyon]], [[California]] is growing alongside a stream running through the desert.]]
 
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Whether as shrubs, trees, or vines, palms have two methods of growth: solitary or clustered. The common representation is that of a solitary shoot ending in a crown of leaves. This [[monopodial]] character may be exhibited by prostrate, trunkless, and trunk-forming members. Some common palms restricted to solitary growth include ''[[Washingtonia]]'' and ''[[Roystonea]]''. Palms may instead grow in sparse though dense clusters. The trunk develops an axillary bud at a leaf node, usually near the base, from which a new shoot emerges. The new shoot, in turn, produces an axillary bud and a clustering habit results. Exclusively [[sympodial]] genera include many of the [[rattan]]s, ''[[Guihaia]]'', and ''[[Rhapis]]''. Several palm genera have both solitary and clustering members. Palms which are usually solitary may grow in clusters, and ''vice versa''. These aberrations suggest the habit operates on a single gene.<ref name=uhl>Uhl, Natalie W. and Dransfield, John (1987) ''Genera Palmarum – A classification of palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore''. Lawrence, Kansas: Allen Press. {{ISBN|0-935868-30-5}} / {{ISBN|978-0-935868-30-2}}</ref>
 
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[[Image:Palm tree trunk.JPG|thumb|right|Sawn palm tree trunk: Palms do not form annual tree rings.]]
 
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Palms have large, evergreen leaves that are either palmately ('fan-leaved') or pinnately ('feather-leaved') compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a tubular sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity.<ref>[http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/arec.htm Arecaceae – University of Hawaii Botany]</ref> The [[inflorescence]] is a [[spadix (botany)|spadix]] or [[raceme|spike]] surrounded by one or more [[bract]]s or [[spadix (botany)|spathes]] that become woody at maturity. The [[flower]]s are generally small and white, radially symmetric, and can be either uni- or bisexual. The sepals and petals usually number three each, and may be distinct or joined at the base. The stamens generally number six, with filaments that may be separate, attached to each other, or attached to the pistil at the base. The [[fruit]] is usually a single-[[seed]]ed [[drupe]] (sometimes berry-like)<ref>[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=10061 Arecaceae in Flora of North America]</ref> but some genera (e.g. ''[[Salacca]]'') may contain two or more seeds in each fruit.
 
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[[File:Puka beach.jpg|thumb|Coconut palm trees in [[Boracay]], the [[Philippines]]]]
 
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[[Image:Chestnut in Guntur.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Palmyra palm fruit at [[Guntur]], [[India]]]]
 
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Like all [[monocot]]s, palms do not have the ability to increase the width of a stem ([[secondary growth]]) via the same kind of [[vascular cambium]] found in non-monocot [[woody plant]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chase|first=Mark W. |authorlink=Mark Wayne Chase|date=2004 |title=Monocot relationships: an overview |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1645–1655 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645 |pmid=21652314}}</ref> This explains the cylindrical shape of the trunk (almost constant diameter) that is often seen in palms, unlike in true [[tree]]s. However, many palms, like some other monocots, do have secondary growth, although because it does not arise from a single vascular cambium producing [[xylem]] inwards and phloem outwards, it is often called "anomalous secondary growth".<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Donoghue | first1 = Michael J. | title = Key innovations, convergence, and success: macroevolutionary lessons from plant phylogeny | url = http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2005/149_MJD_Paleo05.pdf | doi = 10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0077:KICASM]2.0.CO;2 | year = 2005 | volume = 31 | pages = 77–93 | journal = Paleobiology|ref=harv }}</ref>
 
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The Arecaceae are notable among monocots for their height and for the size of their seeds, leaves, and inflorescences. ''[[Ceroxylon quindiuense]]'', [[Colombia]]'s national tree, is the tallest monocot in the world, reaching up to 60&nbsp;m tall.<ref>[http://www.presidencia.gov.co/prensa_new/historia/patrios.htm :: Presidencia de la República de Colombia ::<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The ''[[coco de mer]]'' (''Lodoicea maldivica'') has the largest seeds of any plant, 40–50&nbsp;cm in diameter and weighing 15–30&nbsp;kg each. [[Raffia palm]]s (''Raphia'' spp.) have the largest leaves of any plant, up to 25&nbsp;m long and 3&nbsp;m wide. The ''[[Corypha]]'' species have the largest inflorescence of any plant, up to 7.5&nbsp;m tall and containing millions of small flowers. ''[[Calamus (palm)|Calamus]]'' stems can reach 200&nbsp;m in length.
 
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==Range and habitat==
 
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[[Image:MumbaiClimate.jpg|thumb|right|Coconut palm trees in [[Mumbai]], India]]
 
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[[File:Nakhl-Minoo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Palm and [[sunset]] in [[Minoo Island]] ([[Persian Gulf]])]]
 
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[[Image:Jardins de la croisette, Cannes.jpg|thumb|right|Palm trees in [[Cannes]], France]]
 
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Most palms are native to tropical and subtropical climates. Palms thrive in moist and hot climates, however, they can be found in many different habitats. Their diversity is highest in wet, lowland forests. South America, the Caribbean, and areas of the south Pacific and southern Asia are regions of concentration. Colombia may have the highest number of palm species in one country. There are some palms that are also native to desert areas such as the Arabian peninsula and parts of northwest Mexico. Only about 130 palm species naturally grow entirely beyond the tropics, mostly in humid lowland subtropical climates, in highlands in southern Asia, and along the rim lands of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The northernmost native palm is ''[[Chamaerops|Chamaerops humilis]]'', which reaches 44°N latitude in along the coast of southern [[France]].<ref name="FAO">[http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/X0451E/X0451e03.htm Tropical Palms by Food and Agriculture Organization] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506005013/http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/X0451E/X0451e03.htm |date=May 6, 2006 }}</ref> In the southern hemisphere, the southernmost palm is the ''[[nikau|Rhopalostylis sapida]]'', which reaches 44°S on the [[Chatham Islands]] where an [[oceanic climate]] prevails.<ref name = "FAO"/> Cultivation of palms is possible north of subtropical climates, and some higher latitude locals such as [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], [[England]], and the [[Pacific Northwest]] feature a few palms in protected locations.
 
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Palms inhabit a variety of ecosystems. More than two-thirds of palm species live in humid moist forests, where some species grow tall enough to form part of the [[canopy (biology)|canopy]] and shorter ones form part of the [[understory]].<ref name = "VPEintro"/> Some species form pure stands in areas with poor drainage or regular flooding, including ''Raphia hookeri'' which is common in coastal freshwater swamps in West Africa. Other palms live in tropical mountain habitats above 1000&nbsp;m, such as those in the genus ''[[Ceroxylon]]'' native to the [[Andes]]. Palms may also live in grasslands and scrublands, usually associated with a water source, and in desert [[oasis|oases]] such as the [[date palm]]. A few palms are adapted to extremely [[base (chemistry)|basic]] [[lime (mineral)|lime]] soils, while others are similarly adapted to extreme [[Potassium deficiency (plants)|potassium deficiency]] and toxicity of heavy metals in [[serpentine soil]]s.<ref name="FAO"/>
 
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[[File:Starr 020617-0019 Syagrus romanzoffiana.jpg|thumb|right|A [[queen palm]]]]
 
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[[Image:Beccariophoenix.jpg|thumb|right|A young ''[[Beccariophoenix madagascariensis]]'' palm]]
 
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[[Image:Roystonea-2.jpg|thumb|right|Two ''[[Roystonea regia]]'' specimens in [[Kolkata]], India, note the characteristic crownshaft and apex shoot or 'spear']]
 
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Palms are a [[monophyly|monophyletic]] group of plants, meaning the group consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants.<ref name = "VPEintro"/> Extensive taxonomic research on palms began with botanist H.E. Moore, who organized palms into 15 major groups based mostly on general morphological characteristics. The following classification, proposed by N.W. Uhl and J. Dransfield in 1987, is a revision of Moore's classification that organizes palms into six subfamilies.<ref>N. W. Uhl, J. Dransfield (1987). ''Genera palmarum: a classification of palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore, Jr.'' (Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas).</ref>
 
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* Coryphoideae
 
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* Calamoideae
 
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* Nypoideae
 
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* Ceroxyloideae
 
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* Arecoideae
 
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* Phytelephantoideae
 
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A few general traits of each subfamily are listed below.
 
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The '''Coryphoideae''' are the most diverse subfamily, and are a [[paraphyly|paraphyletic]] group, meaning all members of the group share a common ancestor, but the group does not include all the ancestor's descendants. Most palms in this subfamily have palmately lobed leaves and solitary flowers with three, or sometimes four [[carpel]]s. The fruit normally develops from only one carpel.
 
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Subfamily '''Calamoideae''' includes the climbing palms, such as rattans. The leaves are usually pinnate; derived characters ([[synapomorphy|synapomorphies]]) include spines on various organs, organs specialized for climbing, an extension of the main stem of the leaf-bearing reflexed spines, and overlapping scales covering the fruit and ovary.
 
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Subfamily '''Nypoideae''' contains only one species, ''Nypa fruticans'',<ref>{{cite book|title=Australian Palms: Biogeography, Ecology and Systematics|author=John Leslie Dowe|url=http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=Fk5ud3uuLW8C&pg=PA83&lpg=PA83&dq=Nypoideae&source=bl&ots=GLh89V2U04&sig=-rXN3kSbWv1-bOs8xgcDThEfC84&hl=vi&sa=X&ei=ekWRT4iCJ4TeigfavvSJBA&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Nypoideae&f=false|page=83|accessdate= April 20, 2012}}</ref> which has large, pinnate leaves. The fruit is unusual in that it floats, and the stem is dichotomously branched, also unusual in palms.
 
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Subfamily '''Ceroxyloideae''' has small to medium-sized flowers, spirally arranged, with a [[gynoecium]] of three joined carpels.
 
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The '''Arecoideae''' are the largest subfamily, with six diverse tribes ([[Areceae]], [[Caryoteae]], [[Cocoeae]], [[Geonomeae]], [[Iriarteeae]], and [[Podococceae]]) containing over 100 genera. All tribes have pinnate or bipinnate leaves and flowers arranged in groups of three, with a central pistillate and two staminate flowers.
 
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The '''Phytelephantoideae''' are a [[monoecious]] subfamily. Members of this group have distinct monopodial flower clusters. Other distinct features include a gynoecium with five to 10 joined carpels, and flowers with more than three parts per whorl. Fruits are multiple-seeded and have multiple parts.<ref name = "UA"/>
 
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Currently, few extensive phylogenetic studies of the Arecaceae exist. In 1997, Baker'' et al.'' explored subfamily and tribe relationships using chloroplast [[DNA]] from 60 genera from all subfamilies and tribes. The results strongly showed the Calamoideae are monophyletic, and Ceroxyloideae and Coryphoideae are paraphyletic. The relationships of Arecoideae are uncertain, but they are possibly related to the Ceroxyloideae and Phytelephantoideae. Studies have suggested the lack of a fully resolved hypothesis for the relationships within the family is due to a variety of factors, including difficulties in selecting appropriate outgroups, [[homoplasy]] in morphological character states, slow rates of molecular evolution important for the use of standard [[DNA marker]]s, and character polarization.<ref>Hahn, W.J. (2002). ''A Molecular Phylogenetic Study of the Palmae (Arecaceae) Based on atpB, rbcL, and 18S nrDNA Sequences (Systematic Botany 51(1): 92–112).</ref> However, hybridization has been observed among ''Orbignya'' and ''Phoenix'' species, and using chloroplast DNA in cladistic studies may produce inaccurate results due to maternal inheritance of the chloroplast DNA. Chemical and molecular data from non-organelle DNA, for example, could be more effective for studying palm phylogeny.<ref name="UA">[http://arboretum.arizona.edu/palms.htm Palms on the University of Arizona Campus] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060621003136/http://arboretum.arizona.edu/palms.htm |date=June 21, 2006 }}</ref>
 
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==Selected genera==
 
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See list of Arecaceae genera arranged [[list of Arecaceae genera|by taxonomic groups]] or [[List of Arecaceae genera by alphabetical order|by alphabetical order]] for a complete listing of genera.
 
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[[File:Palmtreesil.jpg|thumb|right|Silhouette of palm trees in [[Kwa-Zulu Natal]], [[South Africa]]]]
 
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[[Image:MultanEvening.jpg|thumb|right|Palm trees in [[Multan]], [[Pakistan]]]]
 
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*''[[Archontophoenix]]''—[[Archontophoenix cunninghamiana|Bangalow palm]]
 
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*''[[Areca]]''—[[Areca catechu|Betel palm]]
 
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*''[[Astrocaryum]]''
 
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*''[[Attalea (palm)|Attalea]]''
 
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*''[[Bactris]]''—[[Bactris gasipaes|Pupunha]]
 
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*''[[Beccariophoenix]]''—[[Beccariophoenix alfredii]]
 
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*''[[Bismarckia]]''—Bismarck palm
 
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*''[[Borassus]]''—Palmyra palm, [[Borassus flabellifer|sugar palm]], [[Borassus flabellifer|toddy palm]]
 
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*''[[Calamus (palm)|Calamus]]''—[[Rattan]] palm
 
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*''[[Ceroxylon]]
 
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*''[[Coconut|Cocos]]''—Coconut
 
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*''[[Coccothrinax]]''
 
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*''[[Copernicia]]''—[[Carnauba wax]] palm
 
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*''[[Corypha]]''—Gebang palm, Buri palm or Talipot palm
 
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*''[[Elaeis]]''—Oil palm
 
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*''[[Euterpe (plant)|Euterpe]]''—Cabbage heart palm, açaí palm
 
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*''[[Hyphaene]]''—[[Hyphaene thebaica|Doum palm]]
 
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*''[[Jubaea]]''—Chilean wine palm, Coquito palm
 
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*''[[Latania]]''—Latan palm
 
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*''[[Licuala]]''
 
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*''[[Livistona]]''—Cabbage palm
 
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*''[[Mauritia]]''—[[Moriche palm]]
 
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*''[[Metroxylon]]''—[[Metroxylon sagu|Sago palm]]
 
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*''[[Nypa fruticans|Nypa]]''—[[Nypa fruticans|Nipa palm]]
 
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*''[[Parajubaea]]''—Bolivian coconut palms
 
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*''[[Phoenix (plant)|Phoenix]]''—[[Date palm]]
 
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*''[[Phoenix sylvestris]]''—Wild date palm
 
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*''[[Pritchardia]]''
 
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*''[[Raffia palm|Raphia]]''—Raffia palm
 
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*''[[Rhapidophyllum]]''
 
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*''[[Rhapis]]''
 
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*''[[Roystonea]]''—Royal palm
 
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*''[[Sabal]]''—Palmettos
 
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*''[[Salacca]]''—[[Salak]]
 
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*''[[Syagrus (plant)|Syagrus]]''—[[Syagrus romanzoffiana|Queen palm]]
 
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*''[[Thrinax]]''
 
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*''[[Trachycarpus]]''—[[Trachycarpus fortunei|Windmill palm]], [[Trachycarpus takil|Kumaon palm]]
 
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*''[[Trithrinax]]''
 
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*''[[Veitchia]]''—[[Veitchia merrillii|Manila palm]], [[Veitchia joannis|Joannis palm]]
 
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*''[[Washingtonia]]''—Fan palm
 
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[[File:Palma Real.jpeg|thumb|right|Cuban Royal palm]]
 
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==Evolution==
 
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{{refimprove-section|date=January 2016}}
 
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The Arecaceae are the first modern family of monocots appearing in the fossil record{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} around 80&nbsp;million years ago (Mya), during the late [[Cretaceous]] period. The first modern species, such as ''Nypa fruticans'' and ''[[Acrocomia|Acrocomia aculeata]]'', appeared 94&nbsp;Mya, confirmed by fossil ''Nypa'' pollen dated to 94&nbsp;Mya.{{clarify|reason=this statement contradicts the statement in the previous sentence|dat=January 2016|date=January 2016}} Palms appear to have undergone an early period of [[adaptive radiation]].{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} By 60&nbsp;Mya, many of the modern, specialized genera of palms appeared and became widespread and common, much more widespread than their range today. {{citation needed|date=January 2012}}  Because palms separated from the monocots earlier than other families,{{when|date=January 2016}} they developed more intrafamilial specialization and diversity.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}{{clarify|date=January 2012}} By tracing back these diverse characteristics of palms to the basic structures of monocots, palms may be valuable in studying monocot evolution.<ref>[http://www.plantapalm.com/vpe/evolution/vpe_evolution.htm Virtual Palm Encyclopedia – Evolution and the fossil record]</ref>  Several species of palms have been identified from flowers preserved in amber, including ''[[Palaeoraphe|Palaeoraphe dominicana]]'' and ''[[Roystonea palaea]]''.<ref name="Poinar2002">{{cite journal |last1=Poinar |first1=G. |year=2002 |title= Fossil palm flowers in Dominican and Baltic amber|journal= Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=139 |issue = 4 |pages=361–367 |doi=10.1046/j.1095-8339.2002.00052.x}}</ref>  Evidence can also be found in samples of [[petrified palmwood]].
 
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==Uses==
 
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<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Palm nut concentrate.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Canned palmnut concentrate]] -->
 
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Human use of palms is as old or older than human civilization itself, starting with the cultivation of the date palm by [[Mesopotamia]]ns and other Middle Eastern peoples 5000&nbsp;years or more ago.<ref name="FAO date palm info">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0681E/t0681e02.htm |title=Date Palm Products – Introduction |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]]| accessdate=2007-06-12 |author =  W.H. Barreveld| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070619094447/http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0681E/t0681e02.htm| archivedate= 19 June 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Date wood, pits for storing dates, and other remains of the date palm have been found in Mesopotamian sites.<ref name="datesex">[http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/NearEast/datesex.shtml Date Sex @ University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology]</ref> The date palm had a tremendous effect on the history of the Middle East. W.H. Barreveld wrote:
 
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{{quote|One could go as far as to say that, had the date palm not existed, the expansion of the human race into the hot and barren parts of the "old" world would have been much more restricted. The date palm not only provided a concentrated energy food, which could be easily stored and carried along on long journeys across the deserts, it also created a more amenable habitat for the people to live in by providing shade and protection from the desert winds (Fig. 1). In addition, the date palm also yielded a variety of products for use in agricultural production and for domestic utensils, and practically all parts of the palm had a useful purpose.<ref name = "FAO date palm info"/>}}
 
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An indication of the importance of palms in ancient times is that they are mentioned more than 30 times in the [[Bible]],<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/keyword/?search=palm+-hand&searchtype=all&version1=31&spanbegin=1&spanend=73 Bible search for "palm"]</ref> and at least 22 times in the [[Quran]].<ref>[http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/k/koran/koran-idx?type=simple&q1=palm&size=First+100 Koran search for "palm"]</ref>
 
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[[Image:Dates on date palm.jpg|thumb|right|Fruit of the date palm ''[[Phoenix dactylifera]]'']]
 
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Arecaceae have great economic importance, including coconut products, oils, dates, [[palm syrup]], ivory nuts, carnauba wax, rattan cane, raffia, and [[Palmwood|palm wood]].
 
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Along with dates mentioned above, members of the palm family with human uses are numerous.
 
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*The type member of Arecaceae is the [[areca]] palm, the fruit of which, the [[areca nut]], is chewed with the [[betel]] leaf for intoxicating effects (''Areca catechu'').
 
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*[[Carnauba]] wax is harvested from the leaves of a Brazilian palm (''Copernicia'').
 
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*[[Rattan]]s, whose stems are used extensively in [[furniture]] and [[basket]]s, are in the genus ''Calamus''.
 
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*[[Palm oil]] is an edible vegetable oil produced by the [[oil palm]]s in the genus ''[[Elaeis]]''.
 
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*Several species are harvested for [[heart of palm]], a vegetable eaten in salads.
 
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*Sap of the nipa palm ''Nypa''  is used to make vinegar.
 
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*Palm [[Sap (plant)|sap]] is sometimes [[fermentation (food)|fermented]] to produce [[palm wine]] or toddy, an [[alcoholic beverage]] common in parts of Africa, India, and the [[Philippines]]. It is also drunk, fresh, as ''neera'', and is a refreshing drink that is consumed until sundown, after which it starts to ferment.
 
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*Palmyra and date palm sap is harvested in Bengal, India, to process into ''gur'' and ''jaggery''.
 
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*[[Dragon's blood]], a red resin used traditionally in [[medicine]], [[varnish]], and [[dye]]s, may be obtained from the fruit of ''[[Daemonorops]]'' species.
 
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*[[Coconut]] is the partially edible seed of the fruit of the coconut palm (''Cocos nucifera'').
 
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*[[Coir]] is a coarse, water-resistant fiber extracted from the outer shell of coconuts, used in doormats, brushes, mattresses, and ropes. In India, beekeepers use coir in their bee smokers.
 
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*Some indigenous groups living in palm-rich areas use palms to make many of their necessary items and food. [[Sago]], for example, a [[starch]] made from the pith of the trunk of the sago palm ''[[Metroxylon sagu]]'', is a major [[staple food]] for lowland peoples of [[New Guinea]] and the [[Moluccas]]. This is not the same plant commonly used as a house plant and called "sago palm".
 
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*Palm wine is made from ''[[Jubaea]]'' also called Chilean wine palm, or coquito palm
 
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*Recently, the fruit of the açaí palm ''[[Açaí Palm|Euterpe]]''  has been used for its reputed health benefits.
 
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*Saw palmetto (''Serenoa repens'') is under investigation as a drug for treating enlarged prostates.
 
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*Palm leaves are also valuable to some peoples as a material for thatching, basketry, clothing, and in religious ceremonies (see "Symbolism" below).<ref name="FAO"/>
 
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[[Image:Santa Monica Palm Trees.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Washingtonia robusta]]'' trees line Ocean Avenue in [[Santa Monica, California]].]]
 
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[[File:Palm tree CANA.JPG|thumb|Sabal palm tree in the [[Canaveral National Seashore]] ]]
 
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*Ornamental uses: Today, palms are valuable as [[ornamental plant]]s and are often grown along streets in [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] cities. Farther north, palms are a common feature in [[botanical gardens]] or as indoor plants. Few palms tolerate severe cold and the majority of the species are tropical or subtropical. The three most [[hardy palms|cold-tolerant species]] are ''[[Trachycarpus fortunei]]'', native to eastern Asia, and ''[[Rhapidophyllum hystrix]]'' and ''[[Sabal minor]]'', both native to the southeastern United States.
 
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*The southeastern U.S. state of [[South Carolina]] is nicknamed the Palmetto State after the [[sabal palmetto]] (cabbage palmetto), logs from which were used to build the fort at [[Fort Moultrie National Monument|Fort Moultrie]]. During the [[American Revolutionary War]], they were invaluable to those defending the fort, because their spongy wood absorbed or deflected the British cannonballs.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/fomo/2_History/FOMO%20RevWar%20Exhibit%20Text.pdf Revolutionary War Exhibit Text – November 2002] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061110143616/http://www.nps.gov/fomo/2_History/FOMO%20RevWar%20Exhibit%20Text.pdf |date=November 10, 2006 }}</ref>
 
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[[File:Coconut Palm flowers.jpg|thumb|right|Coconut flowers]]
 
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==Endangered species==
 
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[[Image:Pritchardia affinis.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''[[Pritchardia affinis]]'', a critically endangered species endemic to the [[Hawaiian Islands]]]]
 
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Like many other plants, palms have been threatened by [[human impact on the environment|human intervention]] and [[exploitation of natural resources|exploitation]]. The greatest risk to palms is [[habitat destruction|destruction of habitat]], especially in the [[tropical forest]]s, due to [[urbanization]], [[wood-chipping]], [[mining]], and [[conversion to farmland]]. Palms rarely reproduce after such great changes in the habitat, and those with small habitat ranges are most vulnerable to them. The harvesting of heart of palm, a delicacy in salads, also poses a threat because it is derived from the palm's [[apical meristem]], a vital part of the palm that cannot be regrown (except in domesticated varieties, e.g. of [[peach palm]]).<ref name="KaheleHeartsHanaHou">{{cite web |url= http://www.hanahou.com/pages/Magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=591&MagazineID=38 |title= Big Island Hearts |author= Rose Kahele |work= [[Hana Hou!]] Vol. 10, No. 4 |date= August–September 2007 |accessdate= 2016-08-14}}</ref> The use of [[rattan palm]]s in furniture has caused a major population decrease in these species that has negatively affected local and international markets, as well as biodiversity in the area.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Palms: Their Conservation and Sustained Utilization | year = 1996 | editor = Dennis Johnson | publisher = International Union for Conservation of Nature | isbn = 2-8317-0352-2 | url = http://intranet.iucn.org/webfiles/doc/SSC/SSCwebsite/Act_Plans/Executive_Summary_Palms_Action_Plan_EN.pdf }}</ref> The sale of seeds to nurseries and collectors is another threat, as the seeds of popular palms are sometimes harvested directly from the wild. At least 100 palm species are currently endangered, and nine species have reportedly recently become extinct.<ref name = "VPEintro"/>
 
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However, several factors make palm conservation more difficult. Palms live in almost every type of warm habitat and have tremendous morphological diversity. Most palm seeds lose viability quickly, and they cannot be preserved in low temperatures because the cold kills the embryo. Using botanical gardens for conservation also presents problems, since they can only house a few plants of any species or truly imitate the natural setting.<ref name = "VPEconserv"/> Also, the risk of cross-pollination can lead to hybrid species.
 
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The Palm Specialist Group of the [[World Conservation Union]] (IUCN) began in 1984, and has performed a series of three studies to find basic information on the status of palms in the wild, use of wild palms, and palms under cultivation. Two projects on palm conservation and use supported by the [[WWF (conservation organization)|World Wildlife Fund]] took place from 1985 to 1990 and 1986–1991, in the American tropics and southeast Asia, respectively. Both studies produced copious new data and publications on palms. Preparation of a global action plan for palm conservation began in 1991, supported by the IUCN, and was published in 1996.<ref name="VPEconserv">[http://www.plantapalm.com/Vpe/conservation/vpe_conservation2.htm Palm Conservation: Its Atecedents, Status, and Needs]</ref>
 
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The rarest palm known is ''[[Hyophorbe amaricaulis]]''. The only living individual remains at the Botanic Gardens of Curepipe in [[Mauritius]].
 
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==Arthropod pests==
 
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{{unreferenced section|date=September 2015}}
 
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Pests that attack a variety of species of palm trees include:
 
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*''[[Raoiella indica]]'', the red palm mite<ref name="doacs.state.fl.us">{{cite web|url=http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/r.indica.html |title=Pest Alerts - Red palm mite, DPI - FDACS |publisher=Doacs.state.fl.us |date= |accessdate=2010-07-30}}</ref>
 
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*''[[Caryobruchus gleditsiae]]'', the palm seed beetle or palm seed weevil<ref>{{cite journal|author=Robert E. Woodruff |year=1968 |title=The palm seed "weevil," ''Caryobruchus gleditsiae'' (L.) in Florida (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) |journal=Entomology Circular |publisher=[[Florida Department of Agriculture]] |volume=73 |pages=1–2 |url=http://www.freshfromflorida.com/pi/enpp/ento/entcirc/ent073.pdf |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724124842/http://www.freshfromflorida.com/pi/enpp/ento/entcirc/ent073.pdf |archivedate=2011-07-24 |df= }}</ref>
 
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*''[[Rhynchophorus ferrugineus]]'', the red palm weevil, recently introduced to Europe<ref>[http://www.pestalert.org/viewNewsAlert.cfm?naid=38 ''Rhynchophorus ferrugineus''] at [[North American Plant Protection Organization]] (NAPPO)</ref><ref name="auto">Ferry & Gómez. 2002. The red palm weevil in the Mediterranean. Vol. 46, No 4, Palms (formerly Principes), Journal of the International Palm Society. [http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2002/redweevil.htm link] http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2002/redweevil.htm link</ref>
 
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==Symbolism==
 
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{{Main article|Palm branch (symbol)}}
 
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The palm branch was a symbol of triumph and victory in pre-Christian times. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] rewarded champions of the games and celebrated military successes with palm branches. Early [[Christian]]s used the palm branch to symbolize the victory of the faithful over enemies of the soul, as in the [[Palm Sunday]] festival celebrating the triumphal entry of [[Jesus]] into [[Jerusalem]]. In [[Judaism]], the palm represents peace and plenty, and is one of the [[Lulav|Four Species]] of [[Sukkot]]; the palm may also symbolize the [[Tree of Life]] in [[Kabbalah]].
 
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Panaiveriyamman was an ancient Tamil [[tree deity]] related to [[fertility]].  Named after ''panai'', the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] name for the [[Palmyra palm]], she was also known as Taalavaasini, a name that further related her to all types of palms.<ref>[http://www.khandro.net/nature_trees.htm Symbolism of trees]</ref>
 
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Today, the palm, especially the coconut palm, remains a symbol of the tropical island [[paradise]].<ref name="VPEintro">[http://www.plantapalm.com/vpe/introduction/vpe_introduction.htm Virtual Palm Encyclopedia – Introduction]</ref>
 
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Palms appear on the flags and seals of several places where they are native, including those of [[Coat of arms of Haiti|Haiti]], [[Coat of arms of Guam|Guam]], [[Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]], [[Seal of Florida|Florida]], and [[Flag of South Carolina|South Carolina]].
 
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==Other plants==
 
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Some species commonly called palms, though they are not true palms, include:
 
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*''[[Cordyline australis]]''<ref name="FAO Tropical Palms" /> (Torbay palm, Ti palm,<ref name="FAO Tropical Palms" /> Palm lily<ref name="FAO Tropical Palms" />) (family [[Asparagaceae]]) and other representatives in the genus ''[[Cordyline]]'' and perhaps also in ''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'' with which ''Cordyline'' may be confused.
 
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*''[[Cycas revoluta]]'' (Sago palm<ref name="FAO Tropical Palms" />) and the rest of the order [[Cycadales]]
 
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*''[[Ravenala]]'' (Traveller's palm<ref name="FAO Tropical Palms" />) (family [[Strelitziaceae]])
 
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*''[[Pandanus spiralis]]'', Screw palm.,<ref name="FAO Tropical Palms">(c) FAO 1995. ''Tropical Palms.''. Introduction. http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0451E/X0451e03.htm ''NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS'' 10. FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. {{ISBN|92-5-104213-6}}</ref> and perhaps other ''[[Pandanus]]'' spp.
 
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*''[[Cyathea cunninghamii]]'' (Palm Fern<ref name="FAO Tropical Palms" />) and other [[Tree ferns]] (families [[Cyatheaceae]] and [[Dicksoniaceae]]) that may be confused with palms.
 
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*''[[Setaria palmifolia]]'' (Palm grass<ref name="FAO Tropical Palms" />), a [[Poaceae]].
 
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*''[[Carludovica palmata]]'' (Panama Hat Palm<ref name="FAO Tropical Palms" />) and perhaps other members in the family [[Cyclanthaceae]].
 
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== See also ==
 
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*[[Coconut]]
 
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*[[Fan palm]] — genera with palmate leaves
 
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*[[List of Arecaceae genera]]
 
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*[[List of foliage plant diseases (Palmae)]]
 
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*[[List of hardy palms]] — palms able to withstand colder temperatures
 
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*[[Palm wine]] — palm tree wine-making process
 
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*''[[Postelsia]]'' — called the "sea palm" (a [[brown alga]])
 
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==References==
 
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{{reflist|20em}}
 
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{{refbegin}}
 
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*[[Carl Heinrich 'Schultzenstein' Schultz|C. H. Schultz-Schultzenstein]] (1832). ''Natürliches System des Pflanzenreichs...'', 317. Berlin, Germany.
 
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*Dransfield J., Uhl N.W., Asmussen C.B., Baker W.J., Harley M.M., Lewis C.E. (2005). "A new phylogenetic classification of the palm family, Arecaceae". ''Kew Bulletin'' 60: 559–569. [latest Arecaceae or Palmae classification]
 
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*[[Hahn, W.J.]] 2002. A Molecular Phylogenetic Study of the Palmae (Arecaceae) Based on atpB, rbcL, and 18S nrDNA Sequences. Systematic Botany 51(1): 92–112.
 
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{{refend}}
 
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==External links==
 
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{{Commons category|Arecaceae}}
 
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{{Wikispecies}}
 
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*[http://www.palmpedia.net/wiki/index.php/Main_Page Palmpedia] A wiki based site dedicated to high quality images and information on palm trees.
 
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*[http://www.fairchildgarden.org/palmguide Guide to Palms] A collection of palm images, scientific data, and horticultural information hosted by Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Miami.
 
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*[http://www.kew.org/cgi-bin/web.dbs/genlist.pl?PALMAE Kew Botanic Garden's Palm Genera list] A list of the currently acknowledged genera by Kew Royal Botanic Gardens in London, England.
 
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*[http://www.pacsoa.org.au/palms/ PACSOA] Palm and Cycad Societies of Australia palm species listing with images.
 
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*[http://www.plantapalm.com Palm & Cycad Societies of Florida, Inc. (PACSOF)], which includes pages on [http://www.plantapalm.com/vpe/taxonomy/vpe_taxonomy3.htm Arecaceae taxonomy] and a [http://www.plantapalm.com/vpe/photos/vpe_photos.htm photo index].
 
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081217121617/http://www.treeworld.info/attachments/f29/8774d1227613501-diagnostico-visual-de-arbolado-y-palmeras-psb54-4-short.pdf Palm stability]
 
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{{monocotyledons}}
 
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{{taxonbar}}
 
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{{Authority control}}
 
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[[Category:Palms| ]]
 
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[[Category:Arecales]]
 
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[[Category:Arecaceae genera| ]]
 
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[[Category:Commelinid families]]
 
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[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
 
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[[Category:Extant Campanian first appearances]]
 

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