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| − | '''Junipers''' are [[conifer]]ous plants in the genus '''''Juniperus''''' {{IPAc-en|dʒ|uː|ˈ|n|ɪ|p|ər|ə|s}}<ref>''Sunset Western Garden Book,'' 1995:606–607</ref> of the cypress family [[Cupressaceae]]. Depending on taxonomic viewpoint, between 50 and 67 species of juniper are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, from the [[Arctic]], south to tropical [[Africa]], from [[Ziarat]], [[Pakistan]] east to eastern [[Tibet]] in the [[Old World]], and in the mountains of [[Central America]]. The highest-known Juniper forest occurs at an altitude of {{convert|16000|ft|m}} in south-eastern [[Tibet]] and the northern [[Himalayas]], creating one of the highest tree-lines on earth.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hampe|first1=Hampe|last2=Petit|first2=Re´my J.|title=Cryptic forest refugia on the 'Roof of the World'|journal=New Phytologist|date=2010|issue=1|pages=5–7|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03108.x/pdf|accessdate=2 September 2015|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03108.x|pmid=20088971|volume=185}}</ref>
| + | [[Category:Conifers]] |
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| − | == Description ==
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| − | {{Details|Juniper berry}}
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| − | [[Image:Jun com cones.jpg|left|thumb|Cones and leaves of ''[[Juniperus communis]]'']]
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| − | Junipers vary in size and shape from tall [[tree]]s, {{convert|20|–|40|m|abbr=on}} tall, to columnar or low spreading [[shrub]]s with long trailing branches. They are [[evergreen]] with needle-like and/or scale-like [[leaf|leaves]]. They can be either [[Plant sexuality|monoecious]] or [[Plant sexuality|dioecious]]. The female [[Conifer cone|seed cones]] are very distinctive, with fleshy, [[fruit]]-like coalescing scales which fuse together to form a "berry"-like structure, {{convert|4|–|27|mm|abbr=on}} long, with 1–12 unwinged, hard-shelled [[seed]]s. In some species these "berries" are red-brown or orange but in most they are blue; they are often aromatic and can be used as a [[spice]]. The seed maturation time varies between species from 6–18 months after pollination. The male cones are similar to those of other Cupressaceae, with 6–20 scales.
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| − | In [[Hardiness zone|zones]] 7 through 10, junipers can bloom and release pollen several times each year. A few species of juniper bloom in autumn, while most species pollinate from early winter until late spring.<ref name=Ogren>{{cite book|last1=Ogren|first1=Thomas|title=The Allergy-Fighting Garden|date=2015|publisher=Ten Speed Press|location=Berkeley, CA|isbn=978-1-60774-491-7|pages=131–133}}</ref>
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| − | {{clear left}}
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| − | [[Image:Jun chin close.jpg|left|thumb|Detail of ''[[Juniperus chinensis]]'' shoots, with juvenile (needle-like) leaves (left), and adult scale leaves and immature male cones (right)]]
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| − | Many junipers (e.g. ''J. chinensis'', ''J. virginiana'') have two types of leaves: seedlings and some twigs of older trees have needle-like leaves {{convert|5|–|25|mm|abbr=on}} long; and the leaves on mature plants are (mostly) tiny ({{convert|2|–|4|mm|abbr=on}}), overlapping and scale-like. When juvenile foliage occurs on mature plants, it is most often found on shaded shoots, with adult foliage in full sunlight. Leaves on fast-growing 'whip' shoots are often intermediate between juvenile and adult.
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| − | In some species (e. g. ''J. communis'', ''J. squamata''), all the foliage is of the juvenile needle-like type, with no scale leaves. In some of these (e.g. ''J. communis''), the needles are jointed at the base, in others (e.g. ''J. squamata''), the needles merge smoothly with the stem, not jointed.
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| − | The needle-leaves of junipers are hard and sharp, making the juvenile foliage very prickly to handle. This can be a valuable identification feature in seedlings, as the otherwise very similar juvenile foliage of cypresses (''[[Cupressus]], [[Chamaecyparis]]'') and other related genera is soft and not prickly.
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| − | Juniper is the exclusive food plant of the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including ''[[Bucculatrix inusitata]]'' and [[juniper carpet]], and is also eaten by the larvae of other Lepidoptera species such as ''[[Chionodes electella]]'', ''[[Chionodes viduella]]'', [[juniper pug]] and [[pine beauty]]; those of the [[tortrix moth]] ''[[Cydia duplicana|C. duplicana]]'' feed on the bark around injuries or [[canker]].
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| − | Junipers are [[gymnosperm]]s, which means they have [[seed]]s, but no flowers or fruits. Depending on the species, the seeds they produce take 1–3 years to develop. The impermeable coat of the seed keeps water from getting in and protects the embryo when being dispersed. It can also result in a long [[dormancy]] that is usually broken by physically damaging the seed coat. Dispersal can occur from being swallowed whole by frugivores and mammals. The resistance of the [[Seed-coat|seed coat]] allows it to be passed down through the digestive system and out without being destroyed along the way. These seeds last a long time, as they can be dispersed long distances over the course of a couple years.<ref name=":9">Chamber, J.C., S.B. Vander Wall., and E.W. Schupp. 1999. Seed and seedling ecology of pinon and juniper species in the pygmy woodlands of western North America. The Botanical Review 65(1):1–38.</ref>
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| − | {{Clear}}
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| − | ==Classification==
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| − | [[File:Juniper needles.jpg|right|thumb|Juniper needles, magnified. Left, ''[[Juniperus communis]]'' (''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus''; note needles 'jointed' at base). Right, ''[[Juniperus chinensis]]'' (''Juniperus'' sect. ''Sabina''; note needles merging smoothly with the stem, not jointed at base)]]
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| − | [[File:Juniperseeds.jpg|right|thumb|Cones and seeds]]
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| − | The number of juniper species is in dispute, with two recent studies giving very different totals, Farjon (2001) accepting 52 species, and Adams (2004) accepting 67 species. The junipers are divided into several sections, though (particularly among the scale-leaved species) which species belong to which sections is still far from clear, with research still on-going. The section ''Juniperus'' is an obvious [[monophyletic]] group though.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}
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| − | '''''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'':''' Needle-leaf junipers. The adult leaves are needle-like, in whorls of three, and jointed at the base (see below right).
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| − | *''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'' subsect. ''Juniperus'': Cones with 3 separate seeds; needles with one stomatal band.
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| − | **''[[Juniperus communis]]'' – Common juniper
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| − | ***''Juniperus communis'' subsp. ''alpina'' – Alpine juniper
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| − | **''[[Juniperus conferta]]'' – Shore juniper (syn. ''J. rigida'' var. ''conferta'')
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| − | **''[[Juniperus rigida]]'' – Temple juniper or needle juniper
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| − | *''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'' subsect. ''Oxycedrus'': Cones with 3 separate seeds; needles with two stomatal bands.
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| − | **''[[Juniperus brevifolia]]'' – Azores juniper
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| − | **''[[Juniperus cedrus]]'' – Canary Islands juniper
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| − | **''[[Juniperus deltoides]]'' – Eastern prickly juniper
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| − | **''[[Juniperus formosana]]'' – Chinese prickly juniper
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| − | **''[[Juniperus lutchuensis]]'' – Ryukyu juniper
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| − | **''[[Juniperus navicularis]]'' – Portuguese prickly juniper
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| − | **''[[Juniperus oxycedrus]]'' – Western prickly juniper or cade juniper
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| − | **''[[Juniperus macrocarpa]]'' (''J. oxycedrus'' subsp. ''macrocarpa'') – Large-berry juniper
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| − | *''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'' subsect. ''Caryocedrus'': Cones with 3 seeds fused together; needles with two stomatal bands.
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| − | **''[[Juniperus drupacea]]'' – Syrian juniper
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| − | '''''Juniperus'' sect. ''Sabina'':''' Scale-leaf junipers. The adult leaves are mostly scale-like, similar to those of ''[[Cupressus]]'' species, in opposite pairs or whorls of three, and the juvenile needle-like leaves are not jointed at the base (including in the few that have only needle-like leaves; see below right). Provisionally, all the other junipers are included here, though they form a [[paraphyletic]] group.
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| − | *'''Old World species
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| − | [[File:SabinaChinensis.jpg|thumb|Avenue of ''J. chinensis'']]
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| − | [[File:El Hierro Sabinar.JPG|thumb|right|''[[Juniperus phoenicea]]'' on [[El Hierro]], [[Canary Islands]]]]
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| − | *''[[Juniperus chinensis]]'' – Chinese juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus convallium]]'' – Mekong juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus excelsa]]'' – Greek juniper
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| − | **''Juniperus excelsa polycarpos'' – Persian juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus foetidissima]]'' – Stinking juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus indica]]'' – Black juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus komarovii]]'' – Komarov's juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus phoenicea]]'' – Phoenicean juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus pingii]]'' – Ping juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus procera]]'' – East African juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus procumbens]]'' – Ibuki juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus pseudosabina]]'' – Xinjiang juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus recurva]]'' – Himalayan juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus sabina]]'' – Savin juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus saltuaria]]'' – Sichuan juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus semiglobosa]]'' – Russian juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus squamata]]'' – Flaky juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus thurifera]]'' – Spanish juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus tibetica]]'' – Tibetan juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus wallichiana]]'' – Himalayan black juniper
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| − | '''New World species
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| − | [[File:JuniperRockCreek.JPG|thumb|upright|''Juniperus occidentalis'' var. ''australis'', eastern [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]], Rock Creek Canyon, California]]
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| − | [[File:Juniper berries q.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Juniperus virginiana]]'' in October laden with ripe cones]]
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| − | *''[[Juniperus angosturana]]'' – Mexican one-seed juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus ashei]]'' – Ashe juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus arizonica]]'' – Synonym: ''Juniperus coahuilensis'' var. ''arizonica'' or ''Juniperus erythrocarpa'' var. ''coahuilensis''. common names: Redberry juniper, roseberry juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus barbadensis]]'' – West Indies juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus bermudiana]]'' – Bermuda juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus blancoi]]'' – Blanco's juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus californica]]'' – California juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus coahuilensis]]'' – Coahuila juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus comitana]]'' – Comitán juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus deppeana]]'' – Alligator juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus durangensis]]'' – Durango juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus flaccida]]'' – Mexican weeping juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus gamboana]]'' – Gamboa juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus horizontalis]]'' – Creeping juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus jaliscana]]'' – Jalisco juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus maritima]]'' – Seaside juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus monosperma]]'' – One-seed juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus monticola]]'' – Mountain juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus occidentalis]]'' – Western juniper
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| − | **''Juniperus occidentalis'' subsp. ''australis'' – Sierra juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus osteosperma]]'' – Utah juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus pinchotii]]'' – Pinchot juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus saltillensis]]'' – Saltillo juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus scopulorum]]'' – Rocky Mountain juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus standleyi]]'' – Standley's juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus virginiana]]'' – Eastern juniper (eastern redcedar)
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| − | **''Juniperus virginiana'' subsp. ''silicicola'' – Southern juniper
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| − | *''[[Juniperus zanonii]]'' (proposed)<ref name="Phytologia">{{cite web|last=Adams|first=Robert|title=Phytologia (April 2010) 92(1)|url=http://www.juniperus.org/AdamsPapersPDFFiles/238-92%281%29105-117AdamsJzanoniiCerroPotosiandFcompataIxta.pdf|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721172241/http://www.juniperus.org/AdamsPapersPDFFiles/238-92(1)105-117AdamsJzanoniiCerroPotosiandFcompataIxta.pdf|archivedate=2011-07-21|df=}}</ref>
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| − | ==Ecology==
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| − | Juniper plants thrive in a variety of environments. The junipers from [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahaul]] valley can be found in dry, rocky locations planted in stony soils. These plants are being rapidly used up by grazing animals and the villagers. There are several important features of the leaves and wood of this plant that cause villagers to cut down these trees and make use of them.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Rawat|first=Yashwant S.|last2=Everson|first2=Colin S.|date=2012-10-01|title=Ecological status and uses of juniper species in the cold desert environment of the Lahaul valley, North-western Himalaya, India|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11629-012-2274-0|journal=Journal of Mountain Science|language=en|volume=9|issue=5|pages=676–686|doi=10.1007/s11629-012-2274-0|issn=1672-6316}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Juniperus occidentalis|western juniper]] plants, a particular species in the juniper genus, are found in [[woodland]]s where there are large, open spaces. Junipers are known to encompass open areas so that they have more exposure to rainfall.<ref name=":9" /> Decreases in fires and a lack of livestock grazing are the two major causes of western juniper takeover. This invasion of junipers is driving changes in the environment. For instance, the ecosystem for other species previously living in the environment and farm animals has been compromised.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Belsky|first=A. Joy|date=1996|title=Viewpoint: Western Juniper Expansion: Is It a Threat to Arid Northwestern Ecosystems?|journal=Journal of Range Management|volume=49|issue=1|pages=53–59|doi=10.2307/4002725|jstor=4002725}}</ref> When junipers increase in population, there is a noticeable decrease in woody species like mountain big [[sagebrush]] and [[aspen]]. Among the juniper trees themselves, there is a lot of competition. The cost of this is a decrease in [[Juniper berry|berry]] production.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=Richard F.|last2=Svejcar|first2=Tony J.|last3=Rose|first3=Jeffrey A.|date=2000|title=Impacts of Western Juniper on Plant Community Composition and Structure|journal=Journal of Range Management|volume=53|issue=6|pages=574–585|doi=10.2307/4003150|jstor=4003150}}</ref> The herbaceous cover has decreased and oftentimes junipers are mistaken to be weeds. As a result, several farmers have thinned the juniper trees or removed them completely. However, this reduction did not result in any significant difference on wildlife survival. Some small mammals found it advantageous to have thinner juniper trees, while cutting down the entire tree was not favorable.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Bombaci|first=Sara|last2=Pejchar|first2=Liba|title=Consequences of pinyon and juniper woodland reduction for wildlife in North America|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378112716000190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=365|pages=34–50|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2016.01.018|year=2016}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gallo|first=Travis|last2=Stinson|first2=Lani T.|last3=Pejchar|first3=Liba|title=Pinyon-juniper removal has long-term effects on mammals|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S037811271630322X|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=377|pages=93–100|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2016.06.029|year=2016}}</ref>
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| − | ==Cultivation and uses==
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| − | [[File:Juniper wood pieces and 1 cent coin.jpg|thumb|''Juniperus communis'' wood pieces, with a [[U.S. penny]] for scale, showing the narrow [[growth ring]]s of the species]]
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| − | [[File:2008-06-18 GreatBritain Plymouth GinFactory.jpg|thumb|[[Plymouth Gin]] factory, UK]]
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| − | Some junipers are susceptible to ''[[Gymnosporangium]]'' rust disease, and can be a serious problem for those people growing [[apple]] trees, the alternate [[host (biology)|host]] of the disease.
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| − | ===Timber===
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| − | Some junipers are given the common name "cedar," including ''[[Juniperus virginiana]]'', the "red cedar" that is used widely in cedar drawers. "Eastern redcedar" is the correct name for ''J. virginiana''. The lack of space between the words "red" and "cedar" indicates that this species is not a true cedar, [[Cedrus]].
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| − | Juniper in weave is a traditional [[cladding (construction)|cladding]] technique used in Northern Europe, e.g. at [[Havrå]], [[Norway]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Bjørn |last=Berge |title= The Ecology of Building Materials |publisher=Taylor & Francis |edition=2nd |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-85617-537-1}}</ref>
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| − | ===Culinary use===
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| − | [[Juniper berries]] are a spice used in a wide variety of culinary dishes and best known for the primary flavoring in [[gin]] (and responsible for gin's name, which is a shortening of the Dutch word for juniper, ''genever''). A juniper based spirit is made by fermenting juniper berries and water to create a "wine" that is then distilled. This is often sold as a juniper brandy in eastern Europe. Juniper berries are also used as the primary flavor in the liquor [[Jenever]] and [[sahti]]-style of beers. Juniper berry sauce is often a popular flavoring choice for [[quail]], [[pheasant]], [[veal]], [[rabbit]], [[venison]] and other game dishes.
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| − | ===Essential oil===
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| − | [[Image:JuniperEssentialOil.png|thumb|Juniper (''Juniperus osteosperma'' and ''scopulorum'') essential oil]]
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| − | Juniper berries are [[steam distillation|steam distilled]] to produce an [[essential oil]] that may vary from colorless to yellow or pale green. Some of its chemical components are [[alpha pinene]], [[cadinene]], [[camphene]] and [[terpineol]]. Leaves and twigs of [[Juniperus virginiana]] are steam distilled to produce oil of juniper. Middle Tennessee and adjacent northern Alabama and southern Kentucky are the centers for this activity. The U.S. Forest Service has provided plans for the apparatus required. This work is typically done during periods of cold weather to reduce the loss of essential oil to evaporation, which is greater in warmer weather, and to take advantage of a time of year when labor might be more readily available.
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| − | ===Ethnic and herbal use===
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| − | Many of the earliest prehistoric people lived in or near juniper forests which furnished them food, fuel, and wood for shelter or utensils.
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| − | In Morocco, the tar (gitran) of the arar tree (''[[Juniperus phoenicea]]'') is applied in dotted patterns on bisque drinking cups. Gitran makes the water more fragrant and is said to be good for the teeth.
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| − | Some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous peoples]], such as the [[Navajo people|Dineh]], have traditionally used juniper for [[diabetes]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McCabe|first1=Melvina|last2=Gohdes|first2=Dorothy|last3=Morgan|first3=Frank|last4=Eakin|first4=Joanne|last5=Sanders|first5=Margaret|last6=Schmitt|first6=Cheryl|year=2005|title=Herbal Therapies and Diabetes Among Navajo Indians|journal=[[Diabetes Care]]|volume=28|issue=6|pages=1534–1535|doi=10.2337/diacare.28.6.1534-a}}<!--| accessdate = 2011-12-15--></ref> Native Americans{{who|date=June 2014}} have also used juniper berries as a female [[contraceptive]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West |first=Gregory L. |last=Tilford |isbn=0-87842-359-1 |publisher=Mountain Press Publishing Company |year=1997}}</ref> The 17th Century [[herbalist]] [[physician]] [[Nicholas Culpeper]] recommended the ripened berries for conditions such as [[asthma]] and [[sciatica]], as well as to speed [[childbirth]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Culpeper's Complete Herbal |first= Nicholas |last=Culpeper |isbn=1-85007-026-1 |publisher=Godfrey Cave Associates |year=1985}}</ref> The plant was long used as an arbortifacient <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plant-lore.com/plantofthemonth/juniper-to-produce-abortion/|title=Saffron - savin - juniper |publisher=Plant Lore}}</ref> and was known as 'bastard killer' in the UK.<ref>G. Grigson, The Englishman’s Flora, 1987: 24</ref>
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| − | Juniper is one of the plants used in [[Scottish culture|Scottish]] and [[Celtic Reconstructionism|Gaelic Polytheist]] [[saining]] rites, such as those performed at [[Hogmanay]] ([[New Year]]), where the smoke of burning juniper is used to cleanse, bless, and protect the household and its inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite book| first =F. Marian | last =McNeill | authorlink = | coauthors = | year =1961 | month = | title =The Silver Bough, Vol.3: A Calendar of Scottish National Festivals, Halloween to Yule | chapter =X Hogmany Rites and Superstitions | editor = | others = | edition = | page =113 | publisher =William MacLellan | location =Glasgow| isbn =0-948474-04-1 | url = }}</ref><ref name=Tairis1>Loughlin, Annie "[http://www.tairis.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=90:sain&catid=37:practises&Itemid=1 Saining]" at Tairis UK. Accessed 8-6-14</ref><ref name=Tairis2>Loughlin, Annie "[http://www.tairis.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=134%3Asaining-ritual&catid=37%3Apractises&Itemid=1 Saining Ritual]" at Tairis UK. Accessed 8-6-14</ref>
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| − | Juniper ash is considered to be one of the main sources of [[calcium]] for the [[Navajo|Navajo people]]. It is usually an ingredient in blue corn meals. They incorporate the juniper ash because of the flavor it provides. Therefore, it can be found in different kinds of corn-based foods such as pancakes or dumplings. The use of juniper ash is important because many [[Navajo|Navajo people]] don't drink animal milk, which is a major source of calcium in some diets. One teaspoon of juniper ash can contribute the same amount of calcium in one cup of milk. The majority of the calcium was derived from woody branches of juniper plants.<ref name=":52">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/s0002-8223(98)00077-7| pmid = 9508018| title = Juniper Ash as a Source of Calcium in the Navajo Diet| journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association| volume = 98| issue = 3| pages = 333| year = 1998| last1 = Christensen| first1 = Nedra K| last2 = Sorenson| first2 = ANN W| last3 = Hendricks| first3 = Deloy G| last4 = Munger| first4 = Ronald}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last=Ballew|first=Carol|last2=White|first2=Linda L.|last3=Strauss|first3=Karen F.|last4=Benson|first4=Lois J.|last5=Mendlein|first5=James M.|last6=Mokdad|first6=Ali H.|date=1997-10-01|title=Intake of Nutrients and Food Sources of Nutrients among the Navajo: Findings from the Navajo Health and Nutrition Survey|url=https://academic.oup.com/jn/article/127/10/2085S/4722323|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|language=en|volume=127|issue=10|pages=2085S–2093S|doi=10.1093/jn/127.10.2085s|issn=0022-3166}}</ref>
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| − | ===Antioxidants===
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| − | {{medical citations needed|section|date=April 2018}}
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| − | [[Juniper berry|Juniper berries]] can be useful because of their [[antioxidant]] properties.{{medcn|date=June 2018}} In folk medicine, it is believed to be helpful with diseases such as [[bronchitis]] and [[arthritis]].{{cn|date=June 2018}} Similarly, the juniper berry oil has antimicrobial properties; specifically, it works well against fungi.{{medcn|date=June 2018}} Common features useful in medicine are [[diuretic]] properties, gastrointestinal irritant properties, and [[antiseptic]] properties.<ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last=El-Ghorab|first=Ahmed|last2=Shaaban|first2=Hamdy A.|last3=El-Massry|first3=Khaled F.|last4=Shibamoto|first4=Takayuki|date=2008-07-01|title=Chemical Composition of Volatile Extract and Biological Activities of Volatile and Less-Volatile Extracts of Juniper Berry (Juniperus drupacea L.) Fruit|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/jf8001747|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=56|issue=13|pages=5021–5025|doi=10.1021/jf8001747|issn=0021-8561}}</ref><ref name=":82">Pepeljnjak, S., I. Kosalec, Z. Kalodera, and N. Blazevic. 2005. Antimicrobial activity of juniper berry essential oil (''Juniperus communis L., Cupressaceae''). Acta Pharm. 55:417-422.</ref>{{npsn|date=June 2018}}
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| − | ===Wood and leaves===
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| − | Local people in Lahaul Valley present juniper leaves to their deities as a folk tradition. It is also useful as a folk remedy for pains and aches as well as [[epilepsy]] and [[asthma]]. They are reported to collect large amounts of juniper leaves and wood for building and religious purposes.<ref name=":0" />
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| − | ===Ornamental use===
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| − | [[File:Juniperus × pfitzeriana 'Gold Coast' 03.jpg|thumb|''Juniperus'' × ''pfitzeriana'' ‘Gold Coast’]]
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| − | Junipers are among the most popular conifers to be cultivated as ornamental subjects for parks and gardens. They have been bred over many years to produce a wide range of forms, in terms of colour, shape and size. They include some of the dwarfest (miniature) cultivars. They are also used for [[bonsai]]. Species found in cultivation include:-
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| − | {{div col|colwidth=30em}}
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| − | *''J. chinensis''
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| − | *''J. communis''
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| − | *''J. horizontalis''
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| − | *''J.'' × ''pfitzeriana''
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| − | *''J. procumbens''
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| − | *''J. rigida''
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| − | *''J. scapulorum''
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| − | *''J. squamata''
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| − | {{div col end}}
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| − | ==Allergenic potential==
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| − | In drier areas, juniper pollen easily becomes airborne and can be inhaled into the lungs. This pollen can also irritate the skin and cause contact dermatitis. Cross-allergenic reactions are common between juniper pollen and the pollen of all species of [[cypress]].<ref name = "Ogren" />
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| − | Monoecious juniper plants are highly allergenic, with an [[OPALS (Ogren Plant Allergy Scale)|OPALS]] allergy scale rating of 9 out of 10. Completely male juniper plants have an OPALS rating of 10, and release abundant amounts of pollen. Conversely, all-female juniper plants have an OPALS rating of 1, and are considered "allergy-fighting".<ref name = "Ogren" />
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| − | ==References==
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| − | {{Reflist}}
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| − | *Adams, R. P. (2004). ''Junipers of the World: The genus Juniperus''. Victoria: Trafford. {{ISBN|1-4120-4250-X}}
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| − | *Farjon, A. (2001). ''World Checklist and Bibliography of Conifers''. Kew. {{ISBN|1-84246-025-0}}
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| − | *Farjon, A. (2005). ''Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys''. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. {{ISBN|1-84246-068-4}}
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| − | *{{cite journal | last1 = Mao | first1 = K. | last2 = Hao | first2 = G. | last3 = Liu | first3 = J. | last4 = Adams | first4 = R. P. | last5 = Milne | first5 = | year = 2010 | title = Diversification and biogeography of ''Juniperus'' (Cupressaceae): variable diversification rates and multiple intercontinental dispersals | url = | journal = New Phytologist | volume = 188 | issue = 1| pages = 254–272 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03351.x | pmid=20561210}}
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | {{Commons|Juniperus}}
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| − | * [http://www.juniperus.org/ Junipers of the world]
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| − | * [http://www.conifers.org/cu/ju/index.htm Gymnosperm Database - ''Juniperus'']
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| − | * {{ThePlantList taxon | G/Cupressaceae/Juniperus | Juniperus }}
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| − | * [http://www.pinetum.org/cones/JUcones.htm Arboretum de Villardebelle] Photos of cones and foliage of selected species
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| − | * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Juniper |short=x}}
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| − | * {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Juniper|year=1920 |short=x}}
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| − | {{Woodworking}}
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| − | {{Taxonbar|from=Q25662}}
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| − | {{Authority control}}
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| − | [[Category:Juniperus| ]]
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