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| | *''Solanum tenellum'' <small>Bitter</small> | | *''Solanum tenellum'' <small>Bitter</small> |
| | *''Solanum triangulare'' <small>Lam.</small> | | *''Solanum triangulare'' <small>Lam.</small> |
| − | |synonyms_ref = <ref>{{GRIN | ''Solanum nodiflorum'' | 101385 | accessdate = 24 December 2017}}</ref><ref name="The Plant List"/> | + | |synonyms_ref = <ref>{{GRIN | ''Solanum nodiflorum'' | 101385 | accessdate = 24 December 2017}}</ref> |
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| − | '''''Solanum americanum''''', commonly known as '''American black nightshade''',<ref>{{PLANTS|id=SOAM|taxon=Solanum americanum|accessdate=17 November 2015}}</ref> '''small-flowered nightshade'''<ref name=BSBI07>{{cite web |title=BSBI List 2007 |publisher=Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland |url=http://www.bsbi.org.uk/BSBIList2007.xls |format=xls |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6VqJ46atN?url=http://www.bsbi.org.uk/BSBIList2007.xls |archive-date=2015-01-25 |accessdate=2014-10-17 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> or '''glossy nightshade''' is a [[herbaceous]] [[flowering plant]] of wide though uncertain native range. The certain native range encompasses the tropics and subtropics of the [[Americas]], [[Melanesia]], [[New Guinea]], and [[Australia]].<ref name=NSWPlantNet>{{Cite web | url= http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Solanum~americanum | last1= Conn | first1 = Barry J. | year= 2001 | title= ''Solanum americanum'' – New South Wales Flora Online | website= PlantNET – The Plant Information Network System | location= Sydney, Australia | publisher= The Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust | version= 2.0 | accessdate= 29 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name=AustTRFPK6.1>{{AustTRFPK6.1 | url= http://keys.trin.org.au:8080/key-server/data/0e0f0504-0103-430d-8004-060d07080d04/media/Html/taxon/Solanum_americanum.htm | accessdate= 29 May 2013 }}</ref>
| + | '''American nightshade''' (''Solanum americanum'') has small fruits, about the size of [[blackcurrant]]s, that resemble tiny sweet tomatoes. There is much worry about toxic alkaloids in this plant, and indeed the green fruits can certainly make you sick. But when ripe (glossy purple-black), the fruits are delicious and I've never felt ill effects from eating them. |
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| − | The plant is widely [[naturalised]] around the Tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans, including [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]], Indochina, [[Madagascar]] and [[Africa]], possibly via [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] introduction in these locales.
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| − | ''Solanum americanum'' is one of the most widespread and morphologically variable species belonging to the section ''Solanum''.<ref name=Ed>{{harvnb|Edmonds|Chweya|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nfau8bsLyUUC&pg=PA93 93]}}</ref> It can be confused with other black nightshade species in the [[Solanum nigrum|''Solanum nigrum'' complex]].<ref name=Moh2010>{{Cite journal | last1= Mohy-ud-dint | first1= A. | last2= Khan | first2= Z. | last3= Ahmad | first3= M. | last4= Kashmiri | first4= M. A. | year= 2010 | title= Chemotaxonomic value of alkaloids in ''Solanum nigrum'' complex | journal= Pakistan Journal of Botany | volume= 42 | issue= 1 | pages= 653–660 | url= http://www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/42(1)/PJB42(1)653.pdf | accessdate= 29 May 2013 }}</ref>
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| − | ==Description==
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| − | ''Solanum americanum'' grows up to {{convert|1|-|1.5|m|in}} tall and is an [[Annual plant|annual]] or short-lived [[Perennial plant|perennial]]. The [[leaf|leaves]] are alternate on the branch, and vary greatly in size, up to {{convert|10|cm|in}} long and {{convert|7|cm|in}} broad, with a {{convert|4|cm|in|adj=on}} [[Petiole (botany)|petiole]] and a coarsely wavy or toothed margin. The [[flower]]s are about 1 cm diameter, white or occasionally light purple, with yellow [[stamen]]s. The [[fruit]] is a shiny black [[berry (botany)|berry]] {{convert|5|-|10|mm|in}} diameter, containing numerous small [[seed]]s. | |
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| − | ==Taxonomy==
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| − | ''Solanum americanum'' is a variable taxon. It is considered by some botanists to be more than one species, and others recognise subspecies.<ref name=NSWPlantNet/> Some botanists have suggested that ''Solanum americanum'' may be conspecific with the European nightshade, ''[[Solanum nigrum|S. nigrum]]''.<ref name="The Plant List">{{ThePlantList |id=tro-29600095 |taxon=Solanum americanum}}</ref>
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| − | ==Toxicity==
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| − | [[File:Solanum americanum (4898754585).jpg|thumb|left|Solanum americanum berries]]
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| − | Research indicates the presence of toxic [[glycoalkaloid]]s and there are warnings to be careful on the use of ''S.americanum'' as herbal medicine and food.<ref name=Moh2010/> The green fruit is particularly [[poisonous]] and eating unripe berries has caused the death of children.<ref name=Tull1999>{{Cite book | last1= Tull | first1= D. | title= Edible and Useful Plants of Texas and the Southwest: A Practical Guide | publisher= University of Texas Press | isbn= 978-0-292-78164-1 | year= 1999 }}</ref> Ripe berries and foliage may also cause poisoning.<ref name=Tull1999/> This is via high levels of the glycoalkaloids, [[solanine]] and [[solamargine]],.<ref name=AlChamiEtal2003>{{Cite journal | last1= Al Chami | first1= L. | last2= Mendez | first2= R. | last3= Chataing | first3= B. | last4= O'Callaghan | first4= J. | last5= Usubilliga | first5= A. | last6= Lacruz | first6= L. | year= 2003 | title= Toxicological effects of α-solamargine in experimental animals | journal= [[Phytotherapy Research]] | volume= 17 | issue= 3 | pages= 254–8 | doi=10.1002/ptr.1122| pmid= 12672156 }}</ref> Other toxins present in the plant include [[chaconine]], [[solasonine]], [[solanigrine]], gitogenin and traces of saponins,<ref name=Nellis1997>{{cite book |first=David W. |last=Nellis |chapter=Black nightshade ''Solanum americanum'' |title=Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=C8xJE2NfQpIC&pg=PA76 |year=1997 |publisher=Pineapple Press |isbn=978-1-56164-111-6 |pages=76,243}}</ref> as well as the [[tropane alkaloid]]s [[scopolamine]] (hyoscine), [[atropine]] and [[hyoscyamine]].<ref name=WildflTucson>[http://www.fireflyforest.com/flowers/2364/solanum-americanum-american-black-nightshade/ ''Wildflowers of Tucson — Arizona Poisonous Tucson Plants'']</ref><ref name=zub>{{cite journal |last=Zubaida |first=Y. |last2=Azbta |first2=K.S. |last3=Syeda |first3=M.A. |title=Medicinally Important Flora of Dhibbia Karsal Village (Mianwali District Punjab) |journal=Asian Journal of Plant Sciences |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=757–762 |year=2004 |doi= |url=http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/ansinet/ajps/2004/757-762.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref>
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| − | Significant amounts of [[solasodine]] (0.65%) have been found in the green berries.<ref name=EdmondsChweva1997>{{harvnb|Edmonds|Chweya|1997|p=66}}</ref> The ripe fruit also contains 0.3–0.45% solasonine,<ref name=EdmondsChweva1997/> and [[acetylcholine]], and has a cholinesterase-inhibiting effect on human plasma.<ref name=Nellis1997/> In [[Transkei]], rural people have a high incidence of [[esophageal cancer]] thought to be a result of using ''S.americanum'' as a food.<ref name=Nellis1997/> Livestock can also be poisoned by high [[nitrate]] levels in the leaves.<ref name=Nellis1997/>
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| − | Toxicity varies widely depending on the genetic strain and the location conditions, like soil and rainfall.<ref name=Tull1999/><ref name=Nellis1997/> Poisonous plant experts advise: "...unless you are certain that the berries are from an edible strain, leave them alone." <ref name=TurnerAderka2009>{{Cite book | last1= Turner | first1= Nancy J. | last2= Aderka | first2= P.von | year= 2009 | title= The North American guide to common poisonous plants and mushrooms | publisher= Timber Press | pages= 181–2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bmGY5APFfFQC&pg=PA182 |isbn=978-0-88192-929-4}}</ref>
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| − | [Removed entire sections. Please do not restore. S. americanum is probably the most toxic species of the black nightshade complex, and definitely known to be potentially fatal even when ripe. The leaf vegetables mentioned below are probably S. scabrum, and the edible berries S. retroflexum.]
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| − | ==Food==
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| − | The ripe fruit is cooked into jams and preserves, or eaten raw.<ref name=Nellis1997/> In Africa, South America, New Guinea and Oceania the young green shoots of ''Solanum americanum'' are cooked and eaten as greens, after boiling in water.<ref name=FloraSAustralia>{{Cite web | url= http://www.flora.sa.gov.au/efsa/lucid/Solanaceae/Solanum%20species/key/Australian%20Solanum%20species/Media/Html/Solanum_americanum.htm | title= Factsheet – *''Solanum americanum'' | work= Electronic Flora of South Australia | publisher= South Australian Government | accessdate= 29 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name=OletEtal2005>{{Cite journal | last1= Olet | first1= E. A. | last2= Heun | first2= M. | last3= Lye | first3= K. A. | year= 2005 | title= African crop or poisonous nightshade; the enigma of poisonous or edible black nightshade solved | journal= African Journal of Ecology | volume= 43 | issue= 2 | pages= 158–161 | doi= 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00556.x }}</ref> The cooking water used for boiling the leaves is discarded as it contains the soluble alkaloids.<ref name=Nellis1997/> In [[Kenya]], [[Cameroon]] and [[Papua New Guinea]] the leaves are sold as a leaf vegetable in the markets.<ref name=Ed/> The leaves are used in a [[West Indian]] [[stew]], and it is known as branched Kalaloo.<ref name=Nellis1997/> In [[Mauritius]] it is cultivated and eaten as a pot-herb and used in [[bouillon (broth)|bouillon]].<ref name=Ed/> Experts warn that care should be taken since numerous toxins are reported with levels varying with local conditions and varieties.<ref name=Tull1999/><ref name=EdmondsChweva1997/><ref name=TurnerAderka2009/>
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| − | ==Medicine==
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| − | It is used as a medicine in [[Cameroon]], [[Kenya]], [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[Panama]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Pakistan]].<ref name=Ed/><ref name=zub/> In China a tea from the whole plant is used to treat cancer of the cervix.<ref name=Nellis1997/> It is used as folk medicine for a wide range of conditions, being applied topically and internally.<ref name=Nellis1997/>
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| − | ===Medical Research===
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| − | Extracts from ''S. americanum'' were found to have selective [[antiviral drug|antiviral]] activity against the [[herpes simplex]] type-1 virus (HSV-1).<ref name=Ali>{{cite journal |last=Ali |first=A.M. |last2=Mackeen |first2=M.M. |last3=El-Sharkawy |first3=S.H. |last4=Abdul Hamid |first4=J. |last5=Ismail |first5=N.H. |last6=Ahmad |first6=F. |last7=Lajis |first7=M.N. |title=Antiviral and Cytotoxic Activities of Some Plants Used in Malaysian Indigenous Medicine |journal=Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science |volume=19 |issue=2/3 |pages=129–136 |year=1996 |issn=0126-6128 |url=}}</ref>
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| − | Methanol extracts of ''S.americanum'' have high antimicrobial activity against ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' and ''[[Aspergillus niger]]''. Water based extracts had no antibacterial activity.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gugulothu |first=V. |last2=Ajmeera |first2=R. |last3=Vatsvaya |first3=S.R. |title=Screening for in vitro antimicrobial activity of ''Solanum americanum'' Miller |journal=Journal of Recent Advances in Applied Sciences |volume=26 |issue=1/2 |pages=43–46 |year=2011 |url=http://www.jraas.org/26%288%2943-46.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref>
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| − | ==See also==
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| − | *[[Sobemovirus]]
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| | ==References== | | ==References== |
| | {{Reflist|31em}} | | {{Reflist|31em}} |
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| − | ==External links==
| + | [[Category:Solanum]] |
| − | *{{Missouri Plants |color=White |leaf=alt |genus=Solanum |species=americanum |link=1}}
| + | [[Category:Plants Keenan has eaten]] |
| − | *{{GRIN}}
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| − | *[http://www.hear.org/pier/species/solanum_americanum.htm Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk: ''Solanum americanum'' (very detailed description)]
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| − | *[http://cropsolutions.fmc.com/Crop_Solutions/Insect_Weed_Detail/0,1778,1805,00.html Identifying nightshades as weeds]
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| − | *{{cite book |first=Jennifer M. |last=Edmonds |first2=James A. |last2=Chweya |title=Black Nightshades: Solanum Nigrum L. and Related Species |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfau8bsLyUUC&pg=PA5 |year=1997 |publisher=Bioversity International |isbn=978-92-9043-321-7 |volume=15 |series=Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops |ref=harv}}
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| − | *{{cite web |title=''Solanum americanum'' Mill |publisher=Solanaceae Source |url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/projects/solanaceaesource/taxonomy/description-detail.jsp?spnumber=905}} — Images, specimens and a full list of scientific synonyms. Full descriptions and identification keys coming soon!
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| − | *[http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Solanum+americanum Plants for a future]
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| − | *{{cite journal |first=Freddy R. |last=Medina |first2=Lawrence S. |last2=Ritchie |title=Molluscicidal Activity of the Puerto Rican Weed, ''Solanum nodiflorum'', against Snail Hosts of ''Fasciola hepatica'' |journal=Economic Botany |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=368–375 |date=October–December 1980 |jstor=4254217 |doi=10.1007/bf02858313}}
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| − | {{Taxonbar|from=Q2729601}}
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| − | [[Category:Solanum|americanum]] | |
| − | [[Category:Poisonous plants]]
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| − | [[Category:Flora of Hawaii]]
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| − | [[Category:Medicinal plants]]
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| − | [[Category:Plants used in traditional African medicine]] | |
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